Arbëresh language

Arbëresh
Arbërisht
E Mbësuame e Krështerë / La Dottrina Cristiana Albanese (The Albanian Christian Doctrine), Piana degli Albanesi – Rome 1592. By Luca Matranga
Pronunciation[ˌaɾbəˈɾiʃt]
Native toItaly
RegionAbruzzo, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Molise, Sicily
EthnicityArbëreshë
Native speakers
70,000-100,000[1]
Dialects
  • Apulian Albanian
  • Calabrian Albanian
  • Campo Marino Albanian
  • Central Mountain Albanian
  • Sicilian Albanian
Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-3aae
Glottologarbe1236
ELPArbëreshë
Linguasphere55-AAA-ah
Distribution of Albanian language dialects.
Arbëresh is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Arbëresh (gluha/gjuha/gjufa Arbëreshe; also known as Arbërisht) are the Albanian linguistic varieties spoken by the Arbëreshë people of Italy, brought there by several migratory waves of Albanians from Albania and Greece since the Late Middle Ages. Arbëresh varieties are derived from the old Tosk Albanian varieties spoken in the south-western Balkans, and throughout the centuries they have developed in Italy in contact with the neighboring Italo-Romance speaking communities.[2][3] Other Tosk Albanian varieties from the Late Middle Ages referred to as Arvanitika (endonym: arbërisht) are spoken in Greece by the Arvanites. E Mbësuame e Krështerë (1592) by Luca Matranga from Piana degli Albanesi is the earliest known Old Tosk text, a translation of a catechism book from Latin.

The Arbëreshë people are bilingual, also speaking Italian.[4] Arbëresh is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. While Italian law protects the language and culture of the Albanian people in Italy,[5] the language taught at school and university is Standard Albanian, constituting an issue for the Arbëresh communities' preservation of their native idiom, wich has remained separated from the main Albanian-speaking compact area for around 500 years. Alongside the fact that Arbëresh is rarely written, another issue for the language attrition is the differentiation between the Albanian varieties used in Italy: the Arbëresh local idioms in some areas are so different from each other that Arbëresh people of those areas use Italian or Standard Albanian as lingua franca to communicate with each other.[4][6][7]

History

[edit]

Between the 11th and 14th centuries, Albanian-speaking mercenaries from the areas of medieval Albania, Epirus and Morea now Peloponesse, were often recruited by the Franks, Aragonese, Italians and Byzantines.

The invasion of the Balkans by the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century caused large waves of emigration from the Balkans to southern Italy. In 1448, the King of Naples, Alfonso V of Aragon, asked the Albanian noble Skanderbeg to transfer to his service ethnic Albanian mercenaries. Led by Demetrio Reres and his two sons, these men and their families were settled in twelve villages in the Catanzaro area of Calabria. The following year, some of their relatives and other Albanians were settled in four villages in Sicily.[8] In 1459 Ferdinand I of Naples also requested assistance from Skanderbeg. After victories in two battles, a second contingent of Albanians was rewarded with land east of Taranto, in Apulia, where they founded 15 villages.[8] After the death of Skanderbeg (1468), resistance to the Ottomans in Albania came to an end. Subsequently, many Albanians fled to neighbouring countries and some settled in villages in Calabria.

There was a constant flow of ethnic Albanians into Italy into the 16th century, and other Albanian villages were formed on Italian soil.[8] The new immigrants often took up work as mercenaries with Italian armies. For instance, between 1500 and 1534, Albanians from central Greece were employed as mercenaries by Venice, to evacuate its colonies in the Peloponnese, as the Turks invaded. Afterwards these troops reinforced defences in southern Italy against the threat of Turkish invasion. They established self-contained communities, which enabled their distinct language and culture to flourish. Arbëreshë, as they became known, were often soldiers for the Kingdom of Naples and the Republic of Venice, between the 16th and 19th centuries.

Despite an Arbëreshë cultural and artistic revival in the 19th century, emigration from southern Italy significantly reduced the population. In particular, migration to the Americas between 1900 and 1940 caused the total depopulation of approximately half of the Arbëreshë villages. The speech community forms part of the highly heterogenous linguistic landscape of Italy, with 12 recognised linguistic minorities Italian state law (law 482/1999).[5] The exact Arbëresh speech population is uncertain, as the Italian national census does not collect data on minority language speakers. This is also further complicated by the Italian state's protection of the Albanian culture and population as a whole and not Arbëresh Albanian specifically. This law theoretically implements specific measures in various fields such as education, communication, radio, press and TV public service, but in the case of the Arberesh community the legal construction of the language as "Albanian" and the community as the "Albanian population" effectively homogenises the language and has not led to adequate provision for the linguistic needs of the communities.[4]

Classification

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Balkanic
The Palaeo-Balkanic Indo-European branch based on the chapters "Albanian" (Hyllested & Joseph 2022) and "Armenian" (Olsen & Thorsø 2022) in Olander (ed.) The Indo-European Language Family

Arbëresh varieties derive from varieties of Old Tosk Albanian, which were spoken in southern Albania and Greece. They have experienced a similar evolutionary pattern to Arvanitika, the Albanian linguistic varieties spoken in Greece. Arbëresh varieties are spoken in Southern Italy in the regions of Abruzzi, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Molise, Apulia and Sicily. The varieties of Arbëresh are closely related to each other but are not always entirely mutually intelligible.

Arbëresh retains many features of medieval Albanian from the time before the Ottoman invasion of Albania in the 15th century. Arbëresh varieties also retain some Greek elements, including vocabulary and pronunciation, most of which they share with Arvanitika varieties. Many of the conservative features of Arbëresh were lost in mainstream Albanian Tosk. For example, it has preserved certain syllable-initial consonant clusters which have been simplified in Standard Albanian (cf. Arbëresh gluhë /ˈɡluxə/ ('language/tongue'), vs. Standard Albanian gjuhë /ˈɟuhə/). Arbëresh most resembles the varieties of Albanian spoken in the southern region of Albania, notably Lab Albanian, as well as Cham Albanian.

Arbëresh was commonly called Albanese ('Albanian' in the Italian language) in Italy until the 1990s. Until the 1980s Arbëresh was mostly a spoken language, except for its written form used in the Italo-Albanian Byzantine Church, and Arbëreshë people had no practical connection with the Standard Albanian language – which was unified as a mainly Gheg-based standard from 1908 to 1969, and as a mainly Tosk-based standard from 1969 – as they did not use the standard Albanian form of writing.[7]

Since the 1980s, some efforts have been organized to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of the language.[citation needed]

Arbëresh has been replaced by local Romance languages and by Italian in several villages, and in others is experiencing contact-induced language shift. Many scholars have produced language learning materials for communities, including those by Giuseppe Schirò Di Maggio, Gaetano Gerbino, Matteo Mandalà, Zef Chiaramonte.

Varieties of Albanian

The Arbëresh local idioms in some areas are so different from each other that Arbëresh people of those areas use Italian or Standard Albanian as lingua franca to communicate with each other.[4][6]

Language or dialect

[edit]

Arbëresh language beside medieval mainland Tosk Albanian is also descended from Arvanitika which evolved separately from other forms of Albanian since the 13th century when its first speakers emigrated to Morea from Southern Albania and Epirus.[9] A dialect is defined linguistically as closely related and, despite their differences, by mutual intelligibility.[citation needed] In the absence of rigorous linguistic intelligibility tests, the claim cannot be made whether one is a dialect or a separate variant of the same language group.[10][7][11][12]

Varieties

[edit]

The varieties of Arbëresh largely correspond with the regions where they are spoken, while some settlements have distinctive features that result in greater or lesser degrees of mutual intelligibility.

The Siculo-Arbëresh variety is spoken exclusively in the Province of Palermo and in three villages: Piana degli Albanesi, Santa Cristina Gela and Contessa Entellina; while the varieties of Piana and Santa Cristina Gela are similar enough to be entirely mutually intelligible, the variety of Contessa Entellina is not entirely intelligible. Therefore a further dialect within Siculo-Arbëresh known as the Palermitan-Arbëresh variety can be identified,[13] as well as a Cosenza variety, a Basilicata variety, and a Campania variety represented by the speech of one single settlement of Greci. There is also a Molisan-Arbëresh and an Apulio-Arbëresh.

Within the Cosenza Calabrian varieties of Arbëresh, the dialect of Vaccarizzo Albanese is particularly distinct. Spoken in the villages of Vaccarizzo Albanese and San Giorgio Albanese in Calabria by approximately 3,000 people, Vaccarizzo Albanian has retained many archaic features of both Gheg and Tosk dialects.

Phonology

[edit]

Some features of Arbëresh distinguish it considerably from standard Albanian while also maintaining features still used in other Tosk Albanian dialects. In some cases these are retentions of older pronunciations.

Vowels

[edit]
Ë

The letter ⟨Ë⟩ is pronounced as either a mid central vowel [ə] or as a close back unrounded vowel [ɯ]. So the word Arbëresh is pronounced either [ɑɾbəˈɾɛʃ] or [ɑɾbɯˈɾɛʃ] depending on the dialect.

Y to I

Arbëresh lacks the close front rounded vowel [y] of Albanian, which is replaced by the close front unrounded vowel [i]. For example ty ('you') becomes tihj, and hyni ('enter') becomes hini.

Consonants

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GJ, Q

The letters ⟨GJ⟩ and ⟨Q⟩ are pronounced as a palatalized voiced velar plosive [ɡʲ] and a palatalized voiceless velar plosive [kʲ], rather than a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] and a voiceless palatal plosive [c] as in standard Albanian. E.g. the word gjith ('all') is pronounced [ɡʲiθ] rather than [ɟiθ], qiell ('heaven') is pronounced [kʲiɛx] rather than [ciɛɫ], and shqip ('Albanian') is pronounced [ʃkʲɪp].

GL, KL

In some words, Arbëresh has preserved the consonant clusters /ɡl/ and /kl/. In Standard Albanian these have mostly become the palatal stops gj and q, e.g. glet not gjet ('s/he looks like ... '), klumësht not qumësht ('milk'), and klisha instead of kisha ('church').

H, HJ

The letter ⟨H⟩ is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative [x]. As such, the Albanian word ha ('eat') is pronounced [xɑ], not [hɑ]. Arbëresh additionally has the palatalized counterpart, [ç]. Therefore, the word hjedh ('throw') is pronounced [çɛθ]. The letter combination ⟨HJ⟩ is present in a few standard Albanian words (without a voiceless velar fricative), but is not treated as a separate letter of the alphabet as it is in Arbëresh.

LL, G, GH

The letters ⟨LL⟩ and ⟨G⟩ are realised as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ]. The vast majority of these words originate in Sicilian, but the sound also occurs in words of Albanian origin. Often ⟨G⟩ when pronounced [ɣ] is replaced by ⟨GH⟩ in the Arbëresh orthography, with ⟨G⟩ in theory reserved for /g/ (although in practice it is inconsistent). This feature is very strong that it is carried over into the Italian speech of inhabitants of Piana degli Albanesi and Santa Cristina Gela in words such as grazie, frigorifero, gallera, magro, gamba etc. which are realised respectively as [ʁratsiɛ], [friɣoˈrifero], [ɣaˈlɛra], [ˈmaɣro], [ˈʁamba] etc.[14][15] In Piana degli Albanesi the tendency is to treat Italian loanwords differently from Sicilian, which results in the difference between llampjun, pronounced as [ʁampˈjun] (from lampione, 'lamp post'), and lampadhin, pronounced as [lampaˈðin] (from Italian lampadina). In the first example, the ⟨L⟩ becomes ⟨LL⟩ [ʁ] because it comes from Sicilian,[why?] whereas in the process of transference from the Italian lampadina to Arbëresh lampadhin, the ⟨l⟩ does not change but the ⟨d⟩ becomes [ð].

Words of Albanian Origin
Written Pronounced English
gëzim [ʁzim] joy
grish [ʁriʃ] invite
llah [ɣaχ] eat until stuffed
pagëzim [paʁˈzim] baptism
Words of Sicilian Origin
Written Pronounced
fughurë [fuɣurə]
fugatjar [fuɣatˈjar]
garazh [ɣarˈaʒ]
ghurg [ɣurɣ]
ghust [ɣust]
ghuant [ɣwant]
maghare [maɣaˈri]

Final devoicing of consonants

[edit]

Arbëresh has retained an archaic system[citation needed] of final devoicing of consonants in contrast with Standard Albanian. The consonants that change when in final position or before another consonant are the voiced stops b, d, g, gj; the voiced affricates x, xh; and the voiced fricatives dh, ll, v, z, zh.

Original voiced b [b] d [d] g/gh [ɡ]/[ɣ] gj [ɡʲ] x [dz] xh [] dh [ð] ll [ɣ] v [v] z [z] zh [ʒ]
Devoiced p [p] t [t] k [k] q [kʲ] c [ts] ch [] th [θ] h [x] f [f] s [s] sh [ʃ]

Examples:

  • b > p: thelb ('clove') - [θɛlp]
  • d > t: Vent ('place') - [vɛnt]
  • dh > th: zgledh ('read') - [sklɛθ]
  • g > k: lig ('bad') - [lɪk]
  • gj > q: zogj ('chicks') - [zɔkʲ]
  • j > hj: vaj ('oil') - [vaç]
  • ll > h: uthull ('vinegar') - [ʊθʊχ]
  • x > c: ndanx ('near') - [ndant͡s]
  • z > s: loz ('dance') - [lɔs]
  • zh > sh: gozhda ('pin') - [ɣɔʃda]

Stress

[edit]

Stress in Arbëresh is usually on the penultimate syllable, as in Italian.

Morphology

[edit]

In Arbëresh, just like in Tosk, the first person present indicative (e.g. "I work") is marked by the word ending in NJ, whereas in standard Albanian this is normally marked by J.

So, 'I live' is rrónj in Arbëresh and rroj in standard Albanian. The present continuous or gerund differs from Standard Albanian; Arbëresh uses the form "jam'e bënj" instead of "po bej" (I am doing).

Non-Albanian derived elements

[edit]

Vocabulary

[edit]

The adoption of words of ancient Greek origin or of the Koine comes above all from their use in Byzantine religious practices, when the corresponding use in Albanian declined, the "courtly" one of the church was used. The Arberesh use ancient Greek in their liturgies. Thus synonyms are created, such as parkales or lutje for the word "prayer".

Some Arbëresh words appear to be of Koine Greek influence. Examples:

  • amáhj [aˈmaç] ('war') < μάχη [ˈmaçi] ('battle').
  • haristís [xaɾiˈstis] ('thank') < ευχαριστώ [e̞fˌxariˈsto̞] ('thank you'). Arvanitika uses fharistisem.
  • hora [xɔˈɾə] ('village') < χώρα [chóra] ('land, village')
  • parkalés [paɾkaˈlɛs] ('I plead', 'please') from παρακαλώ [paˌrakaˈlo̞] ('please').
  • hiravol (sheaf, a bundle of harvested crop), < χειρόβολο (χειρ = hand).

Some Arbëresh words appear to be of Albanian Arvanitika which has influenced the current Greek areas since the Middle Ages. Examples:

  • dhomat (bundle, pack), < Gr. δεμάτιον.
  • argomē (fallow, plowing), < όργωμα. Today surviving in the toponym Argomazit of Piana dei Albanesi.
  • kalogreshza (little woman monk), < καλόγρια = woman monk.
  • gjitonia (neighbourhood), < γειτονία.
  • dhaskal (teacher), < δάσκαλος.

On the Koine Greek elements in the Italo-Albanian dialects see T. Jochalas (1975).[16]

Archaic Latin-Sicilianisms

[edit]

In the Arbëresh varieties of Sicily and Calabria there are loanwords from the Sicilian language that have crystallized into the Arberesh language matrix at some time in the past but have now mostly disappeared, or evolved in the Romance vocabulary of the local population. This also occurs in other Arberesh varieties outside of Sicily with the local Romance varieties of their communities.

Examples:

  • ghranet ('money') < Sic. granna, meaning 'grains'. It is still used in some contexts by modern Sicilian speakers, but in all situations in Arbëresh. Another Arbëresh word for 'money' is haromë, but is no longer used.
  • qaca ('square') < Sic. chiazza; used in all Arbëresh dialects as well as Sicilian. The Albanian word sheshi which means 'square' in standard Albanian means 'plateau' in Arbëresh.
  • rritrenjet ('toilets') < Norman French via Sic. retained in Arbëresh, but no longer in use in modern Sicilian.
  • rritrat ('photograph') < Sic. 'picture' (ritrattu), more common in Arbëresh than in modern Sicilian.
  • zdar (to go to the countryside) < Sic. sdari; no longer commonly used in Sicilian.
  • zgarrar (to make a mistake; to err) < Sic. sgarrari (now carries a different meaning in Sicilian).

Incorporation

[edit]

Alongside the Sicilian vocabulary element in Siculo-Arbëresh, the language also includes grammatical rules for the incorporation of Sicilian-derived verbs in Arbëresh, which differs from the rules concerning Albanian lexical material.

Examples:

  • pincar ('think'), originally mendonjmbanj mend but also mëndinj; derived from the Sicilian 'pinzari'. Which conjugates in the present tense as follows:
  • U pincar = I think
  • Ti pincar = You think
  • Ai/Ajo pincar = He/She thinks
  • Na pincarjëm = We think
  • Ju pincarni = You (pl) think
  • Ata/Ato pincarjën = They think

In the past tense this conjugates as follows:

  • U pincarta = I thought
  • Ti pincarte = You thought
  • Ai/Ajo pincarti = He/She thought
  • Na pincartëm = We thought
  • Ju pincartët = You (pl.) thought
  • Ata/Ato pincartën = They thought

Contractions

[edit]
M’e tha mua He told it to me (feminine object)
Ngë m’i tha mua He did not tell it to me (masculine object)
T’e thom I tell you it (feminine object)
T’i thom I tell you it (masculine object)

Diminutives and augmentatives

[edit]

The Arbëresh diminutive and augmentative system is calqued from Sicilian and takes the form of /-ats(-ɛ)/ = Sic. -azz(u/a); for example "kalac" (cavallone/big horse), and the diminutive takes the form of /-tʃ-ɛl(-ɛ) from Sic. /-c-edd(u/a); for example "vajziçele" (raggazzina/little girl).The Arbëresh word for "swear word" is "fjalac" and comes from a fusion of the Arbëresh word of Albanian etymology: "fjalë" plus the Sicilian augmentative /-azz[a]/ minus the feminine gendered ending /-a/; this calques the Sicilian word 'palurazza' which is cognate with Italian 'parolaccia'.[15]

Comparison with other forms of Albanian

[edit]

There are many instances in which Arberisht differs greatly from Standard Albanian, for instance:

Arbërisht Shqip (Standard Albanian) Meaning
Falem (Falemi if more than one person) Përshëndetje / Tungjatjeta Hello
Mirë se na jerdhët / Mirë se vini Mirë se erdhët Welcome
Mirëmenat Mirëmëngjes Good morning (morning, until noon)
Vjen’ më rarë or vjen më thënë do të thotë or do me thënë It means
Bëjëm të shkonj (Piana degli Albanesi) më le të kaloj Let me pass
Shkòmë musturën më jep piperin Pass me the pepper
Zotërote ë një "zot"? Zotëri, jeni prift? Sir, are you a priest?
E ghrish zotërisë satë për një pasjatë ju ftoj për një shëtitje I invite you for a stroll
Zglith/djovasë mirë lexo mirë Read well
qëroi isht burinë i lik moti është shumë i keq The weather is very bad
U rri Sëndahstinë jetoj në Shën Kristinë I live in Santa Cristina
Ka bëjëm të ngrënit do ta gatuajmë ushqimin We will prepare the food
U ka jecur njera qacës unë kam ecur tek sheshi I have walked to the square
Ghajdhuri isht ndë horë/katund gomari është në katund/fshat The donkey is into the village
Jam e vete ngulem/flë unë do të shtrihem/fle I'm going to sleep
lip ndjesë se zgarrarta/gabova shumë më fal se gabova shumë I'm sorry that I've made so many errors
Ajo isht jime shoqe ajo është gruaja ime/Im shoqe She is my wife
Flit t'arbrisht fol shqip Speak Albanian
Jim shoq isht e ngulet burri im/Im'shoq është duke fjetur My husband is sleeping
Më përqen rritëratin tënd më pëlqen fotografia jote I like our photograph
Mortatë or motrëmëmë hallë or tezë Aunt
Lalë or vovi xhaxha or Lalë (dialect) Uncle or Older brother
Lalbukri burri i hallës Uncle uncle in law (father's sister's husband)
Vova motra e madhe Older sister
Tata babai or at/tata (dialect) Father
Mëmë nënë or mama Mother
Mëdhè edhe/ende Also
ghua vëlla brother
Ndrëngova Kuptova I understood
Sprasmja Fund end
Jot'ëm sempri të thëshjë të mos haje nga tajuri çë ngë ka' klënë pastruar! Jot'ëmë përherë/gjithmonë të thoshte të mos haje nga pjata që nuk është pastruar! Your mother always said don't eat from plates that haven't been cleaned!
Kemi besë se ai ngë i ftes besojmë se ai nuk ka faj We believe he is not at fault
The Lord's Prayer Arbëresh by Sicily (first row)

Compared with Standard Tosk Albanian (second row),
and Gheg Albanian (third row).

Áti jinë çë je qiell, shejtëruar kloft embri jít.
Ati ynë që je qiell, u shënjtëroftë emri yt.
Ati ynë që je qiell, shejtnue kjoftë emni yt.
Our father who art in heaven hallowed be thy name
arthët rregjëria jóte; u bëftë vullimi jít,
arthtë mbretëria jote; u bëftë dëshira jote,
ardhtë mbretnia jote; u baftë vullnesa jote,
thy kingdom come thy will be done
si ndë qiell, ashtú dhé;
si në qiell, edhe mbi dhe.
si në qiell ashtu dhe.
on earth as it is in heaven
bukën tënë të përditshme ëna neve sòt;
bukën tonë të përditëshme jepna neve sot;
bukën tonë të përditshme epna ne sot;
give us this day our daily bread
ndëjena dëtyrët tóna,
edhe falna fajet tona,
e ndiejna ne fajet e mëkatet tona,
and forgive us our trespasses
ashtù si na ja ndëjejëm dëtyruamëvet tanë;
sikundër edhe ne ua falim fajtorëvet tanë;
si i ndiejmë na fajtorët tanë;
as we forgive those who trespass against us
e mos na le biem ngarje, lirona nga i ligu;
edhe mos na shtjerë ngasje, po shpëtona nga i ligu;
e mos na len me ra keq, por largona prej gjith së keq;
and lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil
Ashtu kloft.
Ashtu qoft.
Amin.

Grammar comparison

[edit]

There are many elements of Arberesh grammar that differ considerably from Albanian, for example:

Arbërisht Shqip Meaning Notes
ka shkosh do të kalosh You will pass Arbërisht uses the common Balkan participle ka, whereas Shqip uses do which translates as 'want', which is also a feature of the Balkan sprachsbund
flini alluras/anangasij folni/flisni shpejt Speak fast (pl.)
flëni flini Sleep! (pl.)
bëjëm të shkonj më lër të kaloj Let me pass Shqip uses 'allow me to pass' whereas Arbërisht uses 'we do to pass' and 'able to pass'.
vajta Vajta/shkova I went Arbërisht conjugates from the Tosk word të vete whereas shkova means 'I passed' in Arbërisht
ke gjegjur ke dëgjuar You have heard
Zoti/prifti zën fill parkalesin/lutjen Prifti fillon lutjen The priest starts the prayer
Stis Ndërtoj I build
Jo, nëng/ngë e kam parë Jo, nuk e kam parë No, I haven't seen it
jam e flas, je flet, ai isht e flet, ajo isht e flet, jem'e flasjëm, jan'e flasjën, jan'e flini po flas, ti po flet, ai po flet, ajo po flet, po flasim, po flasin, po flisni I am talking, you are talking, he is talking, she is talking, we are talking, they are talking, you (pl) are talking The present continuous is marked with the structure 'I am, You are, He is, She is, We are, They are etc. Whereas Shqip uses po which literally means 'yes'
ki’ të zgjoneshjëm duhet të ishim zgjuar We should have got up
Ku ë/isht/osht Mëria? Ku është Maria? Where is Maria? The locative marker te which literally means 'to' is added before ku 'where'. (A similar phenomenon occurs in Welsh English and West Country English i.e. 'Where to you going?' or 'Where's he to?')
Mërìa rri alartë Maria jeton lartë Maria lives upstairs
Si ë Zotërote? Si jeni ju, Zotëri? How are you sir? The polite or formal is marked by use of Zotërote with ju being reserved for the plural only

Name

[edit]

The name Arbërishte is derived from the ethnonym "Albanoi", which in turn comes from the toponym "Arbëria" (Greek: Άρβανα), which in the Middle Ages referred to a region in what is today Albania (Babiniotis 1998). Its native equivalents (Arbërorë, Arbëreshë and others) used to be the self-designation of Albanians in general. Both "Arbëria" and "Albania/Albanian" go further back to name forms attested since antiquity.

Within the Arbëresh community the language is often referred to as "Tarbrisht" or "Gjegje". The origin of the term "gjegje" is uncertain, however this does mean "listen" in Arbërisht. Gheg is also the name of one of the two major dialects of Albanian as spoken in the Balkans. According to the writer Arshi Pipa, the term Gegë was initially used for confessional denotation, being used in pre-Ottoman Albania by its Orthodox population when referring to their Catholic neighbors.

[17]

Arbëresh names

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Every Italo-Albanian person is given a legal Italian name and also a name in Albanian Arbërisht. Quite often the Arbëresh name is merely a translation of the Italian name. Arbëresh surnames are also used amongst villagers but do not carry any legal weight; the Arbëresh surname is called an "ofiqe" in Arbërisht. Some Arbëresh 'ofiqe' are 'Butijuni', 'Pafundi', 'Skarpari' (shoemaker from Italian word 'scarpa').

Examples of Italian names and their Arbëresh equivalents:

Italian Arbëresh
Giuseppe Zef, Josif
Marco Marku
Luca Lekë, Lekini/u
Francesco Frangjishk, Nxhiku, Çiku
Nicola Kola, Koll, Nikoll
Angelica Ëngjëlliqe
Gabriele Gavril, Bjelli
Alessandro Lishëndër-i
Elena, Elenuccia Lena, Lenuca
Giacomo Minu, Minikeli, Jakini
Mario, Mariuccio Marjani, Marjucë
Emanuele, Manuele Manuel-i
Maria Mëria
Martino Martini, Tinuçë
Gaetano Tani
Eleuterio Lëfteri
Antonio Ndon, Nton, Gjon
Gaspare Ghaspani
Domenica Mima
Lorenzo Lloreu
Giovanni Jani, Xhuan, Vanù
Demetrio Dhimitër-i
Spiridione Spiridhon, Dhoni, Spiro
Rosalia, Rosario Sallja, Saridu
Tommaso, Tommasino Masinë
Cosimo Gësmëni
Saverio Shaverë
Andrea Ndrica

Writing system

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The language is not usually written outside of the church and a few highly educated families, but officials are now using the standard Albanian alphabet, which is used on street signs in villages as well as being taught in schools.

Language samples

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Pronouns

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Verbs

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Personal moods
Mood Tense Number and person English
equivalent
(only 1SG)
Singular Plural
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Indicative Pluperfect kisha burë kishe burë kishë burë kishëm burë kishni burë kishin burë I had done
Imperfect ish'e buja (she buja) ish'e buje (she buje) ish'e bun (she bun) ishm'e bujëm ishn'e buni ishn'e bujën I was doing
Perfect bura bure burë burëm burën burën I did
Present perfect ka burë ka burë ka burë ka burë ka burë ka burë I have done
Present bunj bun bun bujëm buni bujën I do, I am doing
Future ka bunj ka bush ka buje ka bujëm ka buni ka bujën I will do
Imperative Present buje! buni! do! (2nd person only)
Verbals
Form English
Infinitive të bunj to do
Gerund jam e bunj doing
The verb HAVE The verb BE
PRES IMPERF SUBJ.IMPERF SUBJ.PERF PRES IMPERF SUBJ.IMPERF SUBJ.PERF
1SG kam keshë të kem të keshë jam jeshë të jem të jeshë
2SG ke keshe të kesh të keshe je jeshe të jesh të jëshe
3SG ka kish të ket të kish ishtë, është ish të jet të ish
1PL kemi keshëm të kemi te keshëm jemi jeshëm të jeshëm të jeshëm
2PL kini keshëtë të kini te keshëtë jini jeshëtë të jeshëtë të jeshëtë
3PL kanë kishnë të kenë të kishnë janë ishnë të jenë të ishnë

Some common phrases

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Arberesh English
Falem Hello.
Çë bun? Si rri? What are you doing? How are you?
Jam shum mirë I am very well
Të haristis, je mirë? Thank you, and are you well?
O, jam edhe u mirë. Yes, I'm fine too.
Flet arbreshin? Do you speak Arbërisht?
Ka vjen? Where are you from?
Jam arbëresh I'm Italo-Albanian
Mëma isht ka Srigari My mother is from San Cosmo Albanese
Ju parkales Please
Gëzonem të të njoh Pleased to meet you
Mirëdita Good morning
Shihemi See you soon
Gjegjemi njize We'll speak soon
Si të thon? What's your name?
Mua më thonë Marieja My name is Maria
Ëj/ò Yes (Piana degli Albanesi)
Arà/ëj Yes (Santa Cristina Gela)
Ora/ëj Yes (Contessa Entellina)
Jo No

Prepositions

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Arbëresh English
te to
nga/ka from
prapa behind
te ana e beside, next to
mbatanë on the other side
kundër against
me with
'e (F), i (M), (N & PL) of
brënda within, inside
jashtë outside
sipër on, above
njera until
për for
nën under
mjes/midis/ndër between, among

Demonstrative pronouns

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Demonstrative pronouns replace nouns once they are able to be understood from their context.

Arbëresh English
ai/ajo that (m/f)
ata/ato those (m/f)
ki/kjo this (m/f)
rta/rto these
mosgjë/farëgjë none

Sample text

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Shërbesa e Kurorës - The Arbëresh Marriage Ceremony
Zoti : Gjergji, do ti të marsh për gruja Linën çë ë ke këtú te ana, si urdhuron Klisha Shejte, e të qëndrosh lidhur me atë në të mirën si edhé në të ligën gjithë ditët e gjellës tënde? Priest: Do you George want to take as your wife Lina who is present here according to the instructions of the Holy Church and to be faithful through the good and the bad all of your life?
Dhëndërri: O, e dua! Groom: Yes, I want!
Zoti: Bekuar kloft Perëndia jínë nga herë, naní e për gjithëmonë e për jetë të jetëvet. Priest: blessed be our God for all time, now and always in the centuries of centuries.
Populli: Amín. People: Amen.
Zoti: Në paqe parkalesjëm t'ën Zonë. Priest: In peace we pray to the Lord.
Populli: Lipisí, o i Madh'yn'Zot. People: Our Great God, we beseech you.
Bekimi të unazavet
Zoti: Me këtë unazë shërbëtori i Perëndis, Gjergji, lidhet me shërbëtorën e Perëndis, Lina, në embër të Atit, të Birit e të Shpirtit Shejt. Priest: The servant of God, George, is tied to the servant of God, Lina, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Zoti jep krinjët e këndon Msalmin 127:

Të limë atá çë i trëmben t'ynë Zoti e çë jecjën te udhët e Tij.

the priest delivers the candles and intones Psalm 127

Make happy those who fear the Lord and may they walk in His ways.

Lëvdi tij, o i madh'yn'Zot, lëvdi tij. Dhóksa si, o Theós imón, dhóksa si Glory to you, our God, glory to you.
Se ti ka hashë bukën e shërbëtyrës s'duarvet tote. Lumë ti e fatbardhë ka jeshë. Jotë shoqe ka jet si dhri me pemë te muret e shpis tënde. Bijët tatë si degë ullinjësh rrethë triesës tënde. Shi kështú ka jet bekuar njeriu çë ka trëmbësirën e Perëndisë. That you will eat the bread of the work of your hands. You will be happy and enjoy all that is good.

See your wife as a fertile vine in the intimacy of your home. That your daughters will be like olive branches around your table. That those who fear the Lord will be blessed.

Footnotes

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  1. ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Italy : Albanians". Refworld. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
  2. ^ Matranga & Milano 2019, p. 228: "1. Arbëresh is the name used to indicate the linguistic varieties spoken by descendants of groups of Albanian immigrants in southern Italy from the middle of the fifteenth century. The Albanian varieties are divided into Gheghe varieties, spoken (by the Shqiptarë) in the northern part of the albanophone territory, in Kosovo and in Macedonia, and Tosche varieties, spoken in the southern part of Albania (by the Shqiptarë), in some areas of Greece (by the Arvaniti) and in Southern Italy (by the Arbëreshë)."
  3. ^ Matranga 2018, p. 14: È ormai ampiamente condivisa l’opinione che le varietà italo-albanesi appartengano al ceppo dialettale tosco, ossia a quelle varietà diffuse nell’Albania meridionale e nella Grecia (quest’ultime note col nome di arvanit), mentre in quella settentrionale e nel Kosovo sono presenti parlate del ceppo ghego. p. 73: "Più opportunamente, esse proverrebbero da diverse contrade balcaniche dell’Impero bizantino, in parte già sotto dominio turco-ottomano, corrispondenti a regioni della attuale Albania e della Grecia, sia insulare che peninsulare."
  4. ^ a b c d "Albanians in Italy". Minority Rights Group International.
  5. ^ a b "Legge 15 Dicembre 1999, n. 482, Art. 2, comma 1". Camera.it. Archived from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
  6. ^ a b Jenny Frost, The Arbëreshë: Italy’s Albanian Diaspora, The Cambridge Language Collective: "Arbëresh (or Arbërisht) is the language spoken by the Arbëreshë community in Italy, descending from a medieval Tosk variety and containing influences from Italian. However, the language is now considered endangered; there are estimated to be fewer than 80,000 remaining native speakers worldwide. This can be put down to multiple factors: while some schools and universities in Rome and Southern Italy do teach the Albanian language, the version taught is standard Albanian rather than Arbëresh. Additionally, young people are often reluctant to use Arbëresh, preferring to use Standard Italian or Italo-Romance dialects, and because forms of Arbëresh can differ between communities, standard Albanian can sometimes be used as a lingua franca."
  7. ^ a b c Derhemi, Eda (2003). 'New Albanian immigrants in the old Albanian diaspora: Piana degli Albanesi'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 29(6), 1015–1032. doi:10.1080/1369183032000171348: "Arbëresh is a variety of Albanian, but it is more distant from the main Albanian homeland dialects which have been in constant contact and have undergone the unifying process of standardisation. As expected, the recent influences of Italian are much weaker in Albanian than in Arbëresh".
  8. ^ a b c Nasse, George Nicholas (1964). The Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy. National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council. ISBN 9780598204004.
  9. ^ Liakopoulos 2022, p. 307:The Albanians, also known as Arvanites in the Greek lands, were first mentioned in the Peloponnese in the second half of the fourteenth century. By 1391 there had been an influx of Albanians that could be hired as mercenaries. The Venetians were in need of colonists and soldiers in their depopulated areas and hence offered plots of arable land, pastures and tax exemptions to the wandering Albanians in southern Greece (Thiriet 1959: 366; Chrysostomides 1995: 206, 291, 337, 339; Topping 1980: 261–71; Ducellier 1968: 47–64). A well-attested-to, more populous Albanian settlement took place during the rule of Theodore I Palaeologus (1384–1407), when ten thousand Albanians appeared before the Isthmus and asked Theodore for permission to settle in the Peloponnese (1394-95). A second wave of immigrants from southern Albania and western mainland Greece descended on the Peloponnese, perhaps in 1417-17. Their establishment was significant for the invigoration of the Albanian demographiy in the peninsula that led to the Albanian rebellion in 1453
  10. ^ Derhemi, Eda. "The role of grassroots' media and community leaders for the small endangered languages: The case of Arbëresh of Piana degli Albanesi".
  11. ^ Derhemi, Eda. Language endangerment and maintenance in the Arbresh of Piana degli Albanesi. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2003.
  12. ^ Di Maggio, Martin Hasan. "Arbëresh: language mixing, translanguaging and possible solutions to maintenance problems."
  13. ^ Mandala', M., & Mandala' M (2005). Siculo-arbëresh e siciliano a contatto: alcune verifiche. In Der Einfluss des Italienischen auf die Grammatik der Minderheitensprachen. Morphologische und syntaktische Probleme (pagg. 13-21)
  14. ^ A. Guzzetta, La Parlata di Piana degli Albanesi, Parte I - Fonologia, Palermo 1978
  15. ^ a b Vito Matranga (January 1995). Ipotesi per il rilevamento dei dati variazionali nei punti albanofoni dell'Atlante linguistico della Sicilia (Report).
  16. ^ Jochalas Titos, "Sulla problematica dei prestiti Bizantini e Neo-Greci nei dialetti Italo-Albanesi", Balkan Studies 16, 1, 1975, p. 49.
  17. ^ Arshi Pipa (1989). The Politics of Language in Socialist Albania. East European Monographs. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-88033-168-5. Retrieved 15 July 2013. ...was a confessional name in pre-Ottoman Albania.

References

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  • Babiniotis, Georgios (1985): Συνοπτική Ιστορία της ελληνικής γλώσσας με εισαγωγή στην ιστορικοσυγκριτική γλωσσολογία. ["A concise history of the Greek language, with an introduction to historical-comparative linguistics"] Athens: Ellinika Grammata.
  • Babiniotis, Georgios (1998), Λεξικό της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας ["Dictionary of Modern Greek"]. Athens: Kentro Lexikologias.
  • Breu, Walter (1990): "Sprachliche Minderheiten in Italien und Griechenland." ["Linguistic minorities in Italy and Greece"]. In: B. Spillner (ed.), Interkulturelle Kommunikation. Frankfurt: Lang. 169-170.
  • GHM (=Greek Helsinki Monitor) (1995): "Report: The Arvanites". Online report
  • Hammarström, Harald (2005): Review of Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th Edition. LINGUIST List 16.2637 (5 Sept 2005). Online article Archived 2008-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Vol. II. Livadia: Exandas, 1999 PDF.
  • Η Καινή Διαθήκη στα Αρβανίτικα: Διάτα ε Ρε ['The New Testament in Arvanitika']. Athens: Ekdoseis Gerou. No date.
  • Kloss, Heinz (1967): "Abstand-languages and Ausbau-languages". Anthropological linguistics 9.
  • Liakopoulos, Georgios C. (2022). "The Integration of Settlers into Existing Socio-Environmental Settings: Reclaiming the Greek Lands After the Late Medieval Crisis". In Izdebski, Adam; Haldon, John; Filipkowski, Piotr (eds.). Perspectives on Public Policy in Societal-Environmental Crises: What the Future Needs from History. Springer. ISBN 978-3030941376.
  • Matranga, Vito; Milano, Emma (2019). "Strategies for conservation of a minority language – Between convergence and hybridization". In Francesc Feliu; Olga Fullana (eds.). The Intricacy of Languages. IVITRA Research in Linguistics and Literatur. Vol. 20. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 227–241.
  • Matranga, Vito (2018). "Arbëreshë". In Thomas Krefeld; Roland Bauer (eds.). Lo spazio comunicativo dell’Italia e delle varietà italiane. Korpus im Text. Vol. 7. ISBN 978-3-95896-019-0.
  • Salminen, Tapani (1993–1999): Unesco Red Book on Endangered Languages: Europe. [1].
  • Strauss, Dietrich (1978): "Scots is not alone: Further comparative considerations". Actes du 2e Colloque de langue et de littérature écossaises Strasbourg 1978. 80-97.
  • Thomason, Sarah G. (2001): Language contact: An introduction. Washington: Georgetown University Press. Online chapter
  • Trudgill, Peter (2004): "Glocalisation [sic] and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe". In: A. Duszak, U. Okulska (eds.), Speaking from the margin: Global English from a European perspective. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Online article
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