Alcohol-related crime

A photograph of a group of people standing outside at nighttime, two of whom are barechested and one of whom is balancing on a stone
In the United Kingdom, the police normally only enforce the laws against public intoxication if the intoxicated person is unable to act in a reasonable manner, as demonstrated by such activities as climbing on Stonehenge (pictured).

Alcohol-related crime refers to criminal activities that involve alcohol use as well as violations of regulations covering the sale or use of alcohol; in other words, activities violating the alcohol laws.[1][2] Underage drinking and drunk driving are the most prevalent alcohol‐specific offenses in the United States[1] and a major problem in many, if not most, countries worldwide.[3][4][5] Similarly, arrests for alcohol-related crimes constitute a high proportion of all arrests made by police in the U.S. and elsewhere.[6]

Crime perpetrators are much more likely to be intoxicated than crime victims. Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with nuisance, loitering, panhandling, and disorderly conduct in open spaces; domestic violence; as well as violent crimes, though specifics differ between particular countries and cultures.[1] Research found that factors that increase the likelihood of alcohol‐related violence include difficult temperament, hyperactivity, hostile beliefs, history of family violence, poor school performance, delinquent peers, criminogenic beliefs about alcohol's effects, impulsivity, and antisocial personality disorder.[1]

In the early 2000s, the monetary cost of alcohol-related crime in the United States alone has been estimated at over $205 billion, twice the economic cost of all other drug-related crimes.[7] In a similar period in the United Kingdom, the cost of crime and its antisocial effects was estimated at £7.3 billion.[8] Another estimate for the UK for yearly cost of alcohol-related crime suggested double that estimate, at between £8 and 13 billion.[9] Risky patterns of drinking are particularly problematic in and around Russia, Mexico and some parts of Africa.[10]

The relation between alcohol and violence is not yet fully understood, as its impact on different individual varies. While alcohol use correlates positively with crimes and violence, there is no simple, causal and direct relationship. Studies and theories of alcohol abuse suggest, among others, that use of alcohol likely reduces the offender's perception and awareness of consequences of their actions.[11][1][6][12] The World Health Organization has noted that out of social problems created by the harmful use of alcohol, "crime and violence related to alcohol consumption" are likely the most significant issue.[10]

Types[edit]

Some crimes are uniquely tied to alcohol, such as public intoxication or underage drinking, while others are simply more likely to occur together with alcohol consumption.

Domestic violence and child abuse[edit]

Main articles: Domestic violence and child abuse

Domestic violence typically co‐occurs with alcohol abuse. Alcohol use has been reported as a factor by two-thirds of domestic abuse victims. Moderate drinkers are more frequently engaged in intimate violence than are light drinkers and abstainers, however generally it is heavy and/or binge drinkers who are involved in the most chronic and serious forms of aggression. The odds, frequency, and severity of physical attacks are all positively correlated with alcohol use. In turn, violence decreases after behavioral marital alcoholism treatment. Studies also suggest there may be links between alcohol abuse and child abuse.[1]

Driving under the influence[edit]

Main article: Driving under the influence
An Estonian billboard warning against drunk driving

Driving under the influence (DUI) or driving while intoxicated (DWI), is the crime of driving a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol or other drugs including those prescribed by physicians.[13]

With alcohol consumption, a drunk driver's level of intoxication is typically determined by a measurement of blood alcohol content or BAC; but this can also be expressed as a breath test measurement, often referred to as a BrAC. A BAC or BrAC measurement in excess of the specific threshold level, such as 0.08%, defines the criminal offense with no need to prove impairment.[14] In some jurisdictions, there is an aggravated category of the offense at a higher BAC level, such as 0.12%, 0.15% or 0.25%. In many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication.

Rape[edit]

Rape is any sexual activity that occurs without the freely given consent of one of the parties involved. This includes alcohol-facilitated sexual assault which is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions,[15] or non-consensual condom removal which is criminalized in some countries (see the map below).

Risky sexual behaviors like unprotected sex can lead to sexually transmitted infections and unintended pregnancy.

Non-consensual condom removal[edit]

left
  Court decision declaring stealthing as rape or sexual assault
  Law prohibiting stealthing

Non-consensual condom removal, or "stealthing",[16] is the practice of a person removing a condom during sexual intercourse without consent, when their sex partner has only consented to condom-protected sex.[17][18] Purposefully damaging a condom before or during intercourse may also be referred to as stealthing,[19] regardless of who damaged the condom.

Consuming alcohol can be risky in sexual situations. It can impair judgment and make it difficult for both people to give or receive informed sexual consent. However, a history of sexual aggression and alcohol intoxication are factors associated with an increased risk of men employing non-consensual condom removal and engaging in sexually aggressive behavior with female partners.[20][21]

Sexual assault[edit]

Most sexual assaults occur when the victim has consumed alcohol, rather than "spiked" drinks.[22]
See also: Campus sexual assault

One of the most common date rape drugs is alcohol,[23][24][11] administered either surreptitiously[25] or consumed voluntarily,[23] rendering the victim unable to make informed decisions or give consent. The perpetrator then facilitates sexual assault or rape, a crime known as drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA).[15][26] However, sex with an unconscious victim is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions, and some assailants have committed "rapes of convenience" whereby they have assaulted a victim after he or she had become unconscious from drinking too much.[27] The risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence and risky sexual behavior increases with alcohol abuse,[28] and by the consumption of caffeinated alcoholic drinks.[29][30]

Rum-running[edit]

Main article: Rum-running

Rum-running, the illegal business of smuggling alcoholic beverages where such transportation is forbidden by law.

Straw purchase[edit]

Main article: Straw purchase
See also: Shoulder tap (alcohol)

Straw purchases of alcohol are illegal in most jurisdictions when a person under the legal drinking age requests that a person above the legal age purchase alcohol for the underage person, and the straw purchaser knows or might reasonably assume based on the circumstances that the person is under the legal age.

In England and Wales, buying alcohol on behalf of a person under 18 is a summary offence under section 149 of the Licensing Act 2003, punishable by an unlimited fine (level 5 on the standard scale). There is an exception for beer, wine or cider served to a 16 or 17 year old with a meal at a table.[31]

Manufacturing[edit]

Moonshine[edit]

Moonshine (bootleg liquor) is illegal to produce in most countries and territories.

Methanol poisoning incidents[edit]
Main article: List of methanol poisoning incidents

Outbreaks of methanol poisoning have occurred when methanol is used to adulterate moonshine.[32] Methanol has a high toxicity in humans. If as little as 10 mL of pure methanol is ingested, for example, it can break down into formic acid, which can cause permanent blindness by destruction of the optic nerve, and 30 mL is potentially fatal,[33] although the median lethal dose is typically 100 mL (3.4 fl oz) (i.e. 1–2 mL/kg body weight of pure methanol[34]). Reference dose for methanol is 0.5 mg/kg/day.[35] Toxic effects take hours to start, and effective antidotes can often prevent permanent damage.[33] Because of its similarities in both appearance and odor to ethanol (the alcohol in beverages), it is difficult to differentiate between the two.

Public drunkenness[edit]

Main article: Public intoxication
See also: Drinking in public
Drunkard passed out on a bench

Public drunkenness or intoxication is a common problem in many jurisdictions. The offenders are often lower class individuals and this crime has a very high recidivism rate, with numerous instances of repeated instances of the arrest, jail, release without treatment cycle. The high number of arrests for public drunkenness often reflects rearrests of the same offenders.[6]

Robbery and violent crimes[edit]

Main article: Violent crimes

Robbery and violent crimes often involve alcohol use, and there is a positive correlation between such crimes and alcohol use.[1] 15% of robberies, 63% of intimate partner violence incidents, 37% of sexual assaults, 45-46% of physical assaults and 40-45% of homicides in the United States involved use of alcohol.[36][7] A 1983 study for the United States found that 54% of violent crime perpetrators, arrested in that country, had been consuming alcohol before their offenses.[6] In the United Kingdom, in 2015/2016, 39% of those involved in violent crimes were under alcohol influence.[37] International studies are similar, with an estimate that 63% of violent crimes worldwide involves the use of alcohol.[7]

Prevention and enforcement[edit]

See also: Breathalyzer and Electronic tagging
Early 20th century Dutch poster about the dangers of alcoholism

Criminologist Hung‐En Sung has concluded in 2016 that with regards to reducing drunk driving, law enforcement has not generally proven to be effective. Worldwide, the majority of those driving under the influence do not end up arrested. At least two thirds of alcohol‐involved fatalities involve repeat drinking drivers. Sung, commenting on measures for controlling drunk driving and alcohol‐related accidents, noted that the ones that have proven effective include "lowering legal blood alcohol concentrations, controlling liquor outlets, nighttime driving curfews for minors, educational treatment programs combined with license suspension for offenders, and court monitoring of high‐risk offenders."[1] In general, programs aimed at reducing society's consumption of alcohol, including education in schools, are seen as an effective long-term solution. Strategies aiming to reduce alcohol consumption among adult offenders have various estimates of effectiveness.[8]

Alcohol use is stereotypically associated with crime, and therefore policing alcohol‐related street disorder and enforcing compliance checks of alcohol‐dispensing businesses has proven successful in reducing public perception of and fear of criminal activities.[1]

Taxes[edit]

  • Pigovian taxes, which are to pay for the damage to society caused by these goods.
  • Sin taxes are used to increase the price in an effort to lower their use, or failing that, to increase and find new sources of revenue.

History[edit]

Gin Lane by William Hogarth, 1751

The Gin Craze was a period in the first half of the 18th century when the consumption of gin increased rapidly in Great Britain, especially in London. By 1743, England was drinking 2.2 gallons (10 litres) of gin per person per year. The Sale of Spirits Act 1750 (commonly known as the Gin Act 1751) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain (24 Geo. 2. c. 40) which was enacted in order to reduce the consumption of gin and other distilled spirits, a popular pastime[38] that was regarded as one of the primary causes of crime in London.[39]

Gilbert Paul Jordan (aka The Boozing Barber) was a Canadian serial killer who is believed to have committed the so-called "alcohol murders" between 1965-c. 2004 in Vancouver, British Columbia.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sung, Hung-En (2016), "Alcohol and Crime", The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, American Cancer Society, pp. 1–2, doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosa039.pub2, ISBN 9781405165518
  2. ^ Trevor, Bennett; Katy, Holloway (1 April 2005). Understanding Drugs, Alcohol And Crime. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). p. 6. ISBN 9780335212576.
  3. ^ "Drunk Driving Statistics in the US and Across the World". Law Office of Douglas Herring. 13 November 2017. Archived from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  4. ^ "Drunk Driving Increasing Concern Worldwide". Voice of America. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  5. ^ Sweedler, Barry M.; Stewart, Kathryn (2009), Verster, Joris C.; Pandi-Perumal, S. R.; Ramaekers, Johannes G.; de Gier, Johan J. (eds.), "Worldwide trends in alcohol and drug impaired driving", Drugs, Driving and Traffic Safety, Birkhäuser Basel, pp. 23–41, doi:10.1007/978-3-7643-9923-8_2, ISBN 9783764399238
  6. ^ a b c d Clinard, Marshall; Meier, Robert (14 February 2007). Sociology of Deviant Behavior. Cengage Learning. p. 273. ISBN 9780495093350.
  7. ^ a b c McMurran, Mary (3 October 2012). Alcohol-Related Violence: Prevention and Treatment. John Wiley & Sons. p. 37. ISBN 9781118411063.
  8. ^ a b McMurran, Mary (3 October 2012). Alcohol-Related Violence: Prevention and Treatment. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 337–338. ISBN 9781118411063.
  9. ^ "WHO | Governments confront drunken violence". WHO. Archived from the original on 4 May 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  10. ^ a b "Global status report on alcohol and health" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2011.
  11. ^ a b Holstege CP, Saathoff GB, Neer TM, Furbee RB, eds. (25 October 2010). Criminal poisoning: clinical and forensic perspectives. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. pp. 232. ISBN 978-0-7637-4463-2.
  12. ^ Dingwall, Gavin (23 July 2013). Alcohol and Crime. Routledge. pp. 160–161. ISBN 9781134029709.
  13. ^ Driving Under the Influence: A Report to Congress on Alcohol Limits. U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 1992. pp. 1–.
  14. ^ Nelson, Bruce. "Nevada's Driving Under the Influence (DUI) laws". NVPAC. Advisory Council for Prosecuting Attorneys. Archived from the original on 22 April 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
  15. ^ a b Hall JA, Moore CB (July 2008). "Drug facilitated sexual assault—a review". Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 15 (5): 291–7. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2007.12.005. PMID 18511003.
  16. ^ Hatch, Jenavieve (21 April 2017). "Inside The Online Community Of Men Who Preach Removing Condoms Without Consent". Huffington Post. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
  17. ^ Chesser, Brianna; Zahra, April (22 May 2019). "Stealthing: a criminal offence?". Current Issues in Criminal Justice. 31 (2). Sydney Law School: 217–235. doi:10.1080/10345329.2019.1604474. S2CID 182850828. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
  18. ^ Brodsky, Alexandra (2017). "'Rape-Adjacent': Imagining Legal Responses to Nonconsensual Condom Removal". Columbia Journal of Gender and Law. 32 (2). SSRN 2954726.
  19. ^ Nedelman, Michael (27 April 2017). "Some call it 'stealthing,' others call it sexual assault". CNN.
  20. ^ Davis, KC; Danube, CL; Neilson, EC; Stappenbeck, CA; Norris, J; George, WH; Kajumulo, KF (January 2016). "Distal and Proximal Influences on Men's Intentions to Resist Condoms: Alcohol, Sexual Aggression History, Impulsivity, and Social-Cognitive Factors". AIDS and Behavior. 20 Suppl 1 (1): S147-57. doi:10.1007/s10461-015-1132-9. PMC 4706816. PMID 26156881.
  21. ^ Davis, KC (October 2010). "The influence of alcohol expectancies and intoxication on men's aggressive unprotected sexual intentions". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 18 (5): 418–28. doi:10.1037/a0020510. PMC 3000798. PMID 20939645.
  22. ^ Elsohly, M. A.; Salamone, S. J. (1999). "Prevalence of Drugs Used in Cases of Alleged Sexual Assault". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 23 (3): 141–6. doi:10.1093/jat/23.3.141. PMID 10369321.
  23. ^ a b "Alcohol Is Most Common 'Date Rape' Drug". Medicalnewstoday.com. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 1 June 2011.
  24. ^ Schwartz RH, Milteer R, LeBeau MA (June 2000). "Drug-facilitated sexual assault ('date rape')". Southern Medical Journal. 93 (6): 558–61. doi:10.1097/00007611-200093060-00002. PMID 10881768.
  25. ^ Lyman, Michael D. (2006). Practical drug enforcement (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC. p. 70. ISBN 0849398088.
  26. ^ Beynon CM, McVeigh C, McVeigh J, Leavey C, Bellis MA (July 2008). "The involvement of drugs and alcohol in drug-facilitated sexual assault: a systematic review of the evidence". Trauma, Violence & Abuse. 9 (3): 178–88. doi:10.1177/1524838008320221. PMID 18541699. S2CID 27520472.
  27. ^ "Date Rape". Survive.org.uk. 20 March 2000. Retrieved 1 June 2011.
  28. ^ Chersich MF, Rees HV (January 2010). "Causal links between binge drinking patterns, unsafe sex and HIV in South Africa: its time to intervene". International Journal of STD & AIDS. 21 (1): 2–7. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2000.009432. PMID 20029060. S2CID 3100905.
  29. ^ "Consumption of alcohol/energy drink mixes linked with casual, risky sex". ScienceDaily.
  30. ^ Ball NJ, Miller KE, Quigley BM, Eliseo-Arras RK (April 2021). "Alcohol Mixed With Energy Drinks and Sexually Related Causes of Conflict in the Barroom". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 36 (7–8): 3353–3373. doi:10.1177/0886260518774298. PMID 29779427. S2CID 29150434.
  31. ^ "Licensing Act 2003: Section 149", legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives, 2003 c. 17 (s. 149)
  32. ^ "Application to Include Fomepizole on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines" (PDF). November 2012. p. 10.
  33. ^ a b Vale A (2007). "Methanol". Medicine. 35 (12): 633–4. doi:10.1016/j.mpmed.2007.09.014.
  34. ^ "Methanol Poisoning Overview". Antizol. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2011. dead link
  35. ^ Methanol (CASRN 67-56-1)
  36. ^ "Alcohol-Related Crimes: Statistics and Facts". Alcohol Rehab Guide. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
  37. ^ "Alcohol statistics". Alcohol Change UK. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  38. ^ "History of Alcohol" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
  39. ^ Gin Act – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
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