Has Hlai grammar

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This article is a description of the grammar of standardized Has Hlai, a Hlai language spoken on the island of Hainan, China, by the Hlai (Li) ethnic group. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, numerals, adverbs, and pronouns.^[1][2]

Introduction[edit]

The Hlai people (or, as they are called in Chinese, the Li – 黎族) are the original inhabitants of southern Hainan. A Kra–Dai people, they are believed to have settled there at least 2,000 to 6,000 years ago, and carry genetic markers from ancient people who reached the island between 7,000 and 27,000 years ago.^[3] The Pre-Hlai language they spoke would later evolve into Proto-Hlai, and from there into the modern Hlai languages.

In June 1956, China's government implemented research on Hainan Island of the Hlai people's language.

A 1983 report, Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究),^[4] claimed that the Hlai language is made up of five languages^{[clarification needed]}: Has 侾黎, Gheis 杞黎, Hyuuen 本地黎, Moeifou 美孚黎, and Deitou 加茂黎. For education, the Lauxhuet dialect of Has (Chinese: 侾方言罗活土语) in Ledong Baoyou Baoding (Chinese: 乐东抱由镇保定村) was chosen to be the Li's standardized language. It was this language from which the "Li orthography" (Chinese: 黎文方案) was developed.

In September 1984, two organizations, Central University for Nationalities and the Institute of Minorities in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, made some revisions to the Li orthography. The Hlai language's orthography was finalized with the publishing of a textbook entitled Basic Li Course (Pinyin: Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng; Chinese: 黎语基础教程).^[5]

At the end of 2019, a Hlai-language dictionary was officially posted online (http://www.tunhlai.com).

Phonology and orthography[edit]

Consonants[edit]

Has Hlai has 31 consonants.^[6] /ȶ/ is only found as a coda.

(Still under work)		Labial	Alveolar		Alveolo- palatal	Velar		Glottal
			plain	sibilant		Plain	Lab.	Plain	Lab.	Pal.
Nasal		m [m]	n [n]		ny [ȵ]	ng [ŋ]	ngw [ŋʷ]
Plosive/ Affricate	aspirated	p [pʰ]	t [tʰ]	c, q [tsʰ]		k [kʰ]	kw [kʷʰ]	(ʔ)
	unvoiced	b [p]	d [t]	z, j [ts]	ty [ȶ]	g [k]	gw [kʷ]
	voiced					gh [ɡ]	ghw [ɡʷ]
	implosive	bh [ɓ]	dh [ɗ]
	lateral	bl [pˡ]
Fricative	voiceless	f [f]	hl [ɬ]					h [h]	hw [hʷ]	hy [hʲ]
	voiced	v [v]		dz [z]
Approximant		w [ˀw]	l [l]		y [ˀj]
Trill			r [r]

Notes:

1. /ʔ/ is a null initial
2. /ʔw/ and /ʔj/ are glottalized
3. The velar stops are allophonic in Has Hlai with fricative forms (/k/ > /x/, etc)
4. /f/, /v/ are labiodental; /m/, /b/, /p/, /pʰ/, and /pl/ are bilabial

Vowel rimes[edit]

^{[7][clarification needed]}

		Nucleus
		a [a]		e [e]		i [i]		o [o]		u [u]		uu [ɯ]
		Short	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long
Coda	-a					ia [ia]				ua [ua]		uua [ɯa]
	-i	ai [ai]	aei [aːi]	ei [ɵi]					oei [oːi]	ui [ui]	uei [uːi]		uuei [ɯːi]
	-u	au [au]	aeu [aːu]		eeu [eːu]	iu [iu]	ieu [iːu]	ou [ou]
	-ɯ	auu [aɯ]		euu [eɯ]
	-m	am [am]	aem [aːm]	em [em]	eem [eːm]	im [im]	iem [iːm]	om [om]	oem [oːm]			uum [ɯm]	uuem [ɯːm]
	-n	an [an]	aen [aːn]	en [en]	een [eːn]	in [in]	ien [iːn]		oen [oːn]	un [un]	uen [uːn]	uun [ɯn]	uuen [ɯːn]
	-ȵ	any [aȵ]	aeny [aːȵ]	eny [eȵ]						uny [uȵ]	ueny [uːȵ]
	-ŋ	ang [aŋ]	aeng [aːŋ]	eng [eŋ]	eeng [eːŋ]	ing [iŋ]	ieng [iːŋ]	ong [oŋ]	oeng [oːŋ]		ueng [uːŋ]	uung [ɯŋ]	uueng [ɯːŋ]
	-p	ap [ap]	aep [aːp]	ep [ep]	eep [eːp]	ip [ip]	iep [iːp]	op [op]	oep [oːp]			uup [ɯp]	uuep [ɯːp]
	-t	at [at]	aet [aːt]	et [et]	eet [eːt]	it [it]	iet [iːt]		oet [oːt]	ut [ut]	uet [uːt]	uut [ɯt]	uuet [ɯːt]
	-ȶ	aty [aȶ]	aety [aːȶ]	ety [eȶ]					oety [oːȶ]	uty [uȶ]	uety [uːȶ]
	-k	ak [ak]	aek [aːk]	ek [ek]	eek [eːk]	ik [ik]	iek [iːk]	ok [ok]	oek [oːk]		uek [uːk]	uuk [ɯk]	uuek [ɯːk]

Tones[edit]

Has Hlai has 3 tones. Each tone can take two forms, depending on whether the syllable ends in a stop ("tonic tone")^{[clarification needed]} or not ("level tone")^{[clarification needed]}.

(work in progress)	"level tone"		"tonic tone"
High-Falling	(nothing added) [꜒꜔]	kai ("chicken")	(stop is doubled) [꜒꜔]	oekk ("to drink")
High-Flat	x [꜒꜒]	tax ("rice")	(nothing added) [꜒꜒]	hliet ("to cut")
Low-Flat	s [꜖꜖]	pas ("father")	s [꜖꜖]	daeps ("rope")

Grammar[edit]

Nouns[edit]

Common nouns[edit]

Related to mankind/person[edit]

• 【baiskaux】: (1) woman; (2) wife, it is only used by a husband to call his own wife; it is an impolite word to use to call others' wives.
• 【pasmaen】: (1) man; (2) husband, it is only used by a wife to call her own husband; it is an impolite word to use to call others' husbands.
• 【baisdza】: mother, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own mother, he/she uses the word "bais"
• 【pasdza】: (1) father, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own father, he/she uses the word "pas"; (2) a respected way to call an elderly man.

Related to objects/things[edit]

• 【ghang】: hill, mountain
• 【noms/nams】: (1) water; (2) river
• 【laengs】: sea
• 【fei】: (1) n.: fire; (2) v.: walk
• 【ghei】: rice

Related to time or space[edit]

• 【hwanneix】: today;【uuhaux】: tomorrow
• 【paisdeuu】: up;【paisfou】: down; 【paiskueng】: right;【paishluums】: left

Proper nouns[edit]

People[edit]

• Han (Chinese) name: All Li's Chinese names are loan words, borrowed from the Hainanese spoken language in the region called Uislius (黄流), e.g., Maeus zek dhongx, (Mao Zedong (毛泽东), the founder of the People's Republic of China.
• Hlai name: The Li people usually call their children with names from their own language (Hlai).

Group/organization/party[edit]

• These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok Gong Caens Dhaengs (中国共产党), Chinese Communist Party.

Places[edit]

• These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Bhakgengs, "Beijing, 北京 (capital of the People's Republic of China)"; Haeisnaems dhaeus, "Hainan Island, 海海南岛"; Lokdhongs, "Ledong, 乐东 (the central city of the tribe of Has Hlai )"

Nations[edit]

• Most are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok, "China, 中国";
• few are not loan words, e.g., Moei, "Han people, 汉族"; Hlai, "Li people, 黎族"

Abstract nouns[edit]

These nouns are mostly loan words. The Hlai language being both practical and concrete in nature, is not suitable for describing anything intangible.^{[citation needed]}

The basic rules for Nouns in Hlai language^[8][9][2][edit]

1. Nouns usually cannot be modified by number alone; the number needs a proper classifier following the number to modify the noun.

But, nouns associated with dates (like year, month, day), are modified with numbers alone (no classifiers).

When the word "nyaen" refers to the name of a month (as May above), a number can modify "nyaen" without a classifier. However, when the word "nyaen" refers to the number of months (as below), a classifier is required to modify the word "nyaen."

2. Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs, nor can a noun be doubled (e.g., **uxaeu uxaeu, "man man"; **blongs blongs, "house house") to express the meaning of "every" as is done in Chinese. The way to present the meaning of "every" is to use the word "ranx" plus a proper classifier as below:

3. Although the Hlai language does not have declension of gender, it does have two prefixes to indicate the gender: "bais" for female and "pas" for male, e.g.

pasdza, "father"

baisdza, "mother"

paskai, "cock/rooster"（kai: chicken）

baiskai, "hen"

pasdzuengsgong, "salesman" （dzuengs: sale, gong: stuff）

baisdzuengsgong, "saleswoman"

When the word "bais" exists alone, the meaning is mother; "pas" means father. "Pas" could also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

4.The Hlai language does not use suffixes or prefixes for nouns to denote plurality as in the English language. But, the Hlai language uses the word "kun" to indicate the plurality of nouns, e.g.

The word "kun" can also be used together with a number and a classifier to modify nouns, e.g.,

5. A noun can be a subject, predicate, object, e.g.

6. A noun can be an attribute, and also can be modified by attributes e.g.

7. A noun can also be an adverbial modifier, e.g.

8. A noun in relation to time can even be an adverbial modifier to modify a verb, e.g.

9. When the word "guu" is placed before a noun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.

Verbs[edit]

^[10][11]

Action verbs[edit]

• 【vuek，做】: to do, make...(it is used frequently)
• 【lax，吃】: (1) to eat, drink, smoke...; (2) to swallow up (it is used frequently)
• 【duuengx，给】: to give
• 【taeix，打】: to strike, hit
• 【bleuu，听】: (1) to hear; (2) to feel
• 【dzok，偷】: to steal
• 【zongs，坐】: to sit
• 【ghais，叫，请，派】: to tell someone(s) to do something; to invite...
• 【fei，走】: (1) v.: to walk; (2) n.: fire
• 【cuuek，休息】: to rest
• 【tuas，欺骗】: to cheat
• 【liengs，看守】: to watch, to guard
• others

Linking verbs[edit]

• 【man，是】: am, is, are (be verbs, sometimes omitted in the sentence)
• 【ghwaix，不是】: am not, is not, are not

Verbs for expressing mental activities[edit]

• 【dhas，怕】: to fear, to be afraid of
• 【ngop，想念】: to long to see again, to miss
• 【oep，爱】: to love, to like
• 【vuuengx，心里烦乱】: confusing, disorderly (used as a verb)
• 【luuemx，忘记】: to forget
• 【uuen，埋怨】: to complain
• 【tuuenngaen，生气】: to be angry (other similar word: kis, kisngaen)
• 【dhaix，忍受】: to endure, to bear
• others

Verbs for expressing existence, change, development[edit]

• 【dhuus，在】:(1) v.: to exist; (2) prep.: in, on, at
• 【zaux，有】: to have, there is/are
• 【hlaeux，死】: (1) v.: to die; (2) n.: death
• 【hlou，生】: (1) v.: to give birth; (2) adj.: alive, living
• 【long，长大】: (1) v.: to grow up; (2) adj.: big, large
• 【dzauux，变】: to change
• others

Modal verbs[edit]

• 【gieu，能】: to be good at, to be able to, can
• 【gax，不能】: to be unable to, cannot
• 【kweis，愿意】: to be willing to
• 【ais，不愿】: to be not willing to
• 【dheeng-hwoek，同意，愿意】: to agree with, to be willing to
• 【kueng，会】: to know how to, to be able to
• 【boei，不会】: to not know how to, to be unable to
• 【loepp，可以，能够】: to be allowed to, to be able to
• 【guulax，必须，应该】: must, should
• 【kiemx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
• 【komx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
• 【auux，敢】: to dare to
• others

Verbs of motion[edit]

• 【buuen，来】: to come
• 【hei，去】: to go
• 【beuu，回】: to go back to, to return
• 【luueng，返】: to return
• 【dhuas，过】: to pass through
• 【kaen，上】: to go up
• 【luei，下】: to go down
• 【hluet，进】: to go into
• 【tuuen，出】: (1) v.: to go out, to leave, to exit; (2) prep.: from
• 【dhaens，到】: to arrive

The basic rules for Verbs in Hlai language^[12][11][edit]

1. In Hlai language, verbs never change their form. The placement of an adverb or an auxiliary word after or before a verb determines the verb's tense.[edit]

A. Progressive aspect[edit]

The adverbial word "faets" or "fietla" can express the action in process, and is placed before a verb, e.g.,

B. Perfect aspect[edit]

The verbs with the word "bhaeis" expresses an action that has already happened. If "bhaeis" is placed before a verb, it is an adverbial,e.g.,

Hluuek na bhaeis hei ang he.

child he/she adverbial word of perfective aspect go field accent

"他的孩子已经去山栏地了，His children/child already went to the field."

Pashlaus na bhaeis bleuu fan rien,

older brother he/she adverbial word of perfective aspect hear then say

"Eis, hluumsghweuu na guu. loms cas da?"

Accent don't know he/she auxiliary of future aspect still/again or not

"他哥哥（已经）听了便说，"哎，不知道他还要这样不?"，

When his brother heard of it, he said, "Oh, I don't know that he would still do that (or) not?"

If the word "bhaeis" is placed after a verb, it acts as a complement and means "finished", e.g.,

Hou lax tax bhaeis goms hei.

I eat rice finished then go

"我吃完饭就去，After I finish dinner, I'll go."

The word "dhuas" can also denote the perfect aspect, ("(1) v.: pass through; (2) an auxiliary word that indicates that an action has already happened, and is placed after the verb; (3) an auxiliary word that expresses a comparison, and is placed after the adjective") e.g.,

Meuu laeis zuu zuen aeu neix dhuas cas da?

you see one classifier person/people this auxiliary or not

"你见过这个人吗？Have you ever seen this man?"

Dhes da rien dhongneix dhuas.

I not say/speak like this auxiliary

"我没有说过这样的话，I didn't say anything like that."

C. Future aspect[edit]

The auxiliary word "kweis" or "guu" indicates that an action is in future by being placed before a verb, e.g.,

Na kweis hei Damxax.

he/she auxiliary word for future go Sanya city

"他要去三亚，He is going to Sanya."

Meuu kweis vuek meshes?

you auxiliary word for future do/make what

"你要干什么？What will you do?"

The nuance between the two words "kweis" and "guu" is that: when two verbs are used together, if the first one is the method of the second one, or the second one is the purpose of the first one, only the word "guu" can be placed before the second verb, e.g.,

Bhoek noms guu roengx tax.

carry water for the purpose of cook rice

"打水煮饭，bring the water (used) for cooking"

D. Others[edit]

If an action only lasts for a short while, the adverbial word "zuufanx" is placed after the verb, e.g.,

Gaux zuufanx.

lie down a short while

"躺一会儿，Liedown (for) a short while."

Duuengx hou cat zuufanx.

to let/to allow I, wear a short while

"给我穿一下子，Let me wear it (for) a short while."

2. Hlai verbs, including action verbs, verbs for expressing mental activities, and verbs for expressing existence, change, and development, can be predicates or predicate heads in a sentence. Most of these verbs can be followed by objects or by complements, and can be modified by adverbials, nouns of time, and auxiliary words, e.g.,[edit]

Dhes naeus buuen.

I just come

"我刚来，I just came here."

Mieu gaenys diu.

cat bite mouse

"猫咬老鼠，A cat bites a mouse."

Pasdza dhuus blongs.

father exist/in house

"父亲在家，Father is at home."

Meuu uuhaux kweis hei da？

you tomorrow auxiliary word for future go not

"你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow (or not)?"

3. Hlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix "uu-"; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g.,[edit]

Uu- laix hauux dax hou.

prefix plow that field my

"那犁过的是我的田，The field that has been plowed is mine."

Uu- buuen hauux ghueng dhes.

prefix come that young brother or sister my

"那个来的是我的弟弟（妹妹），The one who is coming is my brother/sister."

Nominal verbs still can function as a verb with an object following it; the nominal verb and the object together can function as a subject, object or nominal predicate, e.g.,

Duis neix man uu- duuengx hlausghueng.

buffalo this is prefix give relatives

"这牛是给亲戚的，The buffalo is for (giving to) the relatives."

Uu- oep hou man dhangjis hou.

prefix love me is comrade my

"爱我的是我的同志，The one who loves me is my comrade."

4. Hlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g.,[edit]

Na bleuu bleuu fan beuu.

he/she hear hear then go back

"他听了听就回去了，He (only) heard about/of it and went back."

Kun hluuekueng dzueis dzueis fan fei hluet blongs.

plural marker young girl look look then walk go into house

"姑娘们看了看就走进屋里去了，The girls (only) taking a quick look, then went into the house."

A verb followed by "laeis" comes to mean "to try"; if a verb is followed by an object, the word "laeis" should be placed after the object, e.g.,

Hou qim laeis.

I taste try

"我尝尝看，I'll try (to taste) it."

Meuu dzueis dhang na laeis.

You (s.) look face he/she try

"你看看他的脸，You try to look at his face."

5. Modal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g.,[edit]

Dhes kueng rien tun Moei.

I know how say/speak word Han/Chinese

"我会讲汉语，I can speak Chinese."

Meuu kiemx hei geek guns.

You should/must go look for firewood

"你应该去砍柴，You should look for firewood."

Meuu guulax dhongneix vuek naus dhiu.

you should/must like this do just right

"你必须这样做才对，You must do (it) like this, (for it) to be done just right."

Meuu gieu vuek meshes?

You be good at do what

"你能干什么？What are you good at?"

Na boei taeis zuu hom qias neix.

he/she be not able to write one classifier script this

"他不会写这个字，He does not know how to write this one script."

Hou dheeng'hwoek vuek.

I be willing to/agree do

"我愿意/同意做，I am willing to (do that) / I agree to (do that)."

Meuu kweis beuu na da?

You be willing to marry he/she not

"你愿意嫁他吗？Are you willing to marry him?"

Na ais vuek.

he/she be not willing to do

"他不愿意做，He is not willing to (do that)."

Na gax vuek gong neix.

he/she be not able do work this

"他无法做这个工作，He is not able to do this work."

Na loepp buuen.

he/she be allowed to/be able to come

"他可以来，He is able to come. / He is allowed to come."

Hou auux taeix hapaeu.

I dare to shoot

"我敢打枪，I dare to shoot."

Modal verbs cannot be followed by noun-objects, nor can modal verbs be doubled, except in an interrogative sentence, that a positive and negative modal verb is used to ask yes or no,e.g.,

Meuu kueng da kueng?

You know how not know how

"你会不会？Do you know how to do it (or not)?"

Only in answering questions, can a modal verb act alone as a predicate, except for the modal verbs "kiemx", "guulax" and the word "guu", which cannot act as a predicate, e.g.,

Meuu gieu rien tun Hlai cas da? Dhes gieu.

You be able to say/speak word Li or not? I be able to

"你能说黎语吗？我能，Can you speak the Hlai/Li language? I can."

Modal verbs sometimescan be followed by an object, e.g.,

Na bhaeis o kueng qias Hlai he.

he already learn (loan word) know how script Li accent

"他已经学会黎文了，He already learned the Hlai's/Li's script."

The antonym of the modal verb "kweis" is "ais"; the antonym of "kueng" is "hluums", and that of "gieu" is "gax", which cannot be used in the imperative mood.

6. Verbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g.,[edit]

Uengxtoengs buuen res!

everyone come accent

"大家来吧！Everyone, come!"

Also, verbs of motion can follow a main verb to express the direction of the action forming a predicate, e.g.,

Dhes fei hluet blongs.

I walk go into house

"我走进屋里，I walked into the house."

Na tuuen blongs ghoux tuuen buuen.

he/she from house run go out come

"他从屋里跑出来，He ran out of the house."

Zuufanx blei hei, zuufanx blei luueng.

a short while swim go to, a short while swim go back

"一会儿游去，一会儿游回，swim back and forth."

Also, verbs of motion can combine together and become compound words as can be seen in the chart below:

	buuen (来, to come)	hei (去, to go to)	beuu (回, to go back)
luueng (回返, back)	buuenluueng，回来	heiluueng，回去	beuuluueng，回去
dhuas (过, pass)	buuendhuas，过来	heidhuas，过去	beuudhuas，回去，过去
kaen (上, up)	buuenkaen，上来	heikaen，上去	beuukaen，回去，上去
luei (下, down)	buuenluei，下来	heiluei，下去	beuuluei，回去，下去
hluet (进, into)	buuenhluet，进来	heihluet，进去	beuuhluet，回去，进去
tuuen (出, out)	buuentuuen，出来	heituuen，出去	beuutuuen，回去，出去
beuu (回, back)	buuenbeuu，回来	heibeuu，回去

The compound words above can be followed by objects, e.g.,

Hou hwanneix bhaeis duengx heikaen hwous.

I today already carry/bring go up mountain

"我今天已经送到山上去，I have already brought (it) to the mountain today."

Pasdza ghuis na heihluet hwous hloek.

Father lead/direct he/she go into mountain deep

"父亲带他进入深山，Father took him into the remote mountains."

Pasbhanghlauux fan beuuluueng blongs.

name of a man then come back home

"Pasbhanghlauux 便回家去，Then, Pasbhanghlauux went home."

Except for the word "luueng", the words found in the first column of the chart ("dhuas", "kaen", "luei", "hluet", "tuuen", and "beuu") and the words found along the top row ("buuen", "hei", and "beuu") can exchange positions. After exchanging positions, the compound words cannot be followed by an object, and usually are used in imperative mood.

7. Linking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combining two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g.,[edit]

Hou man Hlai, ghwaix Moei.

I am Li, am not Han/Chinese

"我是黎族，不是汉族，I am a Li, not a Han."

Na man pashlaus hou.

He is older brother my

"他是我的哥哥，He is my older brother."

The linking verbs can be omitted, e.g.,

Na pasghueng hou.

He younger brother my

"他是我的弟弟，He is my younger brother."

But, when the subject or predicate is too long, or when the predicate includes numbers, the linking verbs cannot be omitted, e.g.,

Gha uengxtoengs bhaeisbhaeis ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.

We everyone all all are people China

"咱们大家都是中国人，All of us are Chinese."

Linking verbs cannot go with words that indicate the tense (like "faets" or "bhaeis" or "dhuas"), nor with directional verbs or with the complement, nor be modified by adverbials, or be doubled.

8. When the suffix "toengs" is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g.,[edit]

Duis tut'toengs.

Water buffalo collide with each other

"牛互相碰撞，The buffaloes collided with each other."

Na hlaus zuen oeptoengs dhat.

He/she two classifier love each other truly

"他们两人很相爱，The two of them love each other very much."

9. Some words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,[edit]

	noun	verb
fun	大雨 fun rain long big fun long rain big "heavy rain"	"下雨了！ fun rain, bhe! accent fun bhe! rain, accent It is raining!"
coem	果子 coem fruit cai tree coem cai fruit tree "fruit"	树结果 cai tree coem bear fruit cai coem tree {bear fruit} "The tree bears fruit."
dzuuem	鸡蛋 dzuuem egg kai chicken dzuuem kai egg chicken "chicken egg"	鸡下蛋 kai chicken dzuuem lay egg kai dzuuem chicken {lay egg} "The chicken is laying an egg."
haeis	牛屎 haeis excrement duis water buffalo haeis duis excrement {water buffalo} "water buffalo's excrement"	牛拉屎 duis water buffalo haeis excrement duis haeis {water buffalo} excrement "The water buffalo is defecating."

In Chinese and English, the verb "wear" can apply to different actions, like wearing a necklace, wearing a hat, or wearing earrings. However, in Hlai language these different actions are distinguished by different verbs, e.g.,

• "to wear"
  • kienx (for wearing a necklace);
  • mieng (for wearing earrings);
  • ngwaus (for wearing a hat);
  • pien (for wearing a skirt, pants, shoes);
  • cat (for wearing a top, a shirt)
• "noise"
  • roeng (from an insect or bird);
  • vuns (from a dog);
  • hyoen (from a rooster);
  • ngwaety (from a human)

Adjectives[edit]

^[13][14]

Describing the characteristics of a person or thing[edit]

• 【hleny，好】: good
• 【reek，坏】: bad, not good
• 【kaeix，冷】: cold
• 【fous/faus，热】: hot
• 【dza，老】: old
• 【bluuek，年轻】: young
• 【hloek，深】: deep
• 【tuuens，浅】: shallow
• others

Describing the forms/attributes of thing[edit]

• 【long，大】: big, large
• 【enyx，小】: small
• 【peek，高】: tall, high
• 【tauus，矮】: short
• 【daeus，长】: long
• 【taty，短】: short
• others

Describing the state of actions or emotions[edit]

• 【dzuuns，快】: quick
• 【dais，慢】: slow
• 【hluengs，松】: loose
• 【guung，紧】: tight
• 【hlenyfaty，快乐】: happy
• 【heen，容易】: easy
• others

The basic rules for Adjectives in Hlai language^[15][9][14][edit]

1. In Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement.[edit]

A. As a predicate[edit]

The adjective goes after the subject, e.g.,

Zuu hom coem hauux long baisias.

One classifier fruit that big/large very much

"那一个果子很大，That fruit (is) large!"

Zuu zuen aeu max reek.

One classifier man/person there bad

"那一个人坏，That man (is) bad/notorious."

B. As an attribute[edit]

The adjective goes after the noun that is modified, e.g.,

dhop kieu

cloth blue/green

"蓝布，(a) blue cloth"

veengs paens

shirt/top colorful

"花衣服，(a) loud (pronounced colors) shirt"

fun long

rain big

"大雨，heavy rain"

hwous enyx

mountain small

"小山，(a) small mountain / hill"

blongs peek

house tall

"高房子，(a) tall house"

ceeng hleny

flower good

"好花，(a) pretty flower"

C. As an adverbial[edit]

The adjective is placed before the verb, e.g.,

Meuu dais dais lax as.

You slow slow eat an accent

"你慢慢地吃吧！(You) Eat slowly."

Na kauuspaeis fei.

He/she swift in action walk

"他迅速地走，He walked quickly."

D. As a complement[edit]

The adjective usually comes after the verb in a sentence, e.g.,

Na vuek reek he.

He/she do/make bad an accent

"他弄坏了，He has broken (it)."

Meuu bhaeis laix hleny hyos?

You already plow well marker of question

"你已经犁好了吗？Have you finished plowing?"

2. An adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g.,[edit]

da hleny

not good

"不好，not good"

da peek

not tall

"不高，not tall"

vaeu reek

most bad

"最坏，worst"

duix hlenymuuen

most beautiful

"最美丽，most beautiful"

paens dhatdhat

colorful/floral truly/really

"很花，very colorful"

hlenyfaty baisias

happy very much

"很高兴，very happy"

3. In Hlai language, adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees.[edit]

A. comparative degree[edit]

Either "dhuas" or "bhi", denote comparative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If the word "dhuas" is used, it should be placed after the adjective, and the adjective and "dhuas" should be placed between the two objects being compared, e.g.,

Baisdza peek dhuas hluuekbaiskaux.

Mother tall more than daughter

"母亲高过女儿，The mother is taller than her daughter."

Zuuhwuuep long dhuas zuu'ei.

Winter melon/white gourd big more than pumpkin

"冬瓜大过南瓜，The white gourd is bigger than her pumpkin."

If the loan word "bhi" is used, it is placed between the two objects being compared, and the adjective is placed after the latter object, e.g.,

Meuu bhi dhes peek.

You compare I tall

"你比我高，You are taller than I (am)."

Blongs dhes bhi blongs na hleny.

House my compare house his good

"我的房子比他的房子好，My house is better than his."

B. superlative degree[edit]

Either "vaeu" or "duix", denote superlative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If either "vaeu" or "duix" is used, it should be placed before the adjective, e.g.,

Pashlaus vaeu gieu.

Older brother most capable

"哥哥最能干，The older brother is most capable."

Baiscuty duix hlenymuuen.

Youngest daughter most beautiful

"幺妹最漂亮，The youngest daughter is most beautiful."

According to my Hlai language consultant, Mr. Liu, "The word veau could possibly imply a derogatory, an exaggerated or overstated statement." It depends on the context.

C. Others[edit]

"Zuugit", instead of indicating comparative or superlative degrees, denotes "(just) a little bit", e.g.,

Zuu kuuengx cai neix peek zuugit.

One classifier tree this tall a little bit

"这棵树高一点，This three is just a little bit taller."

Veengs neix baen zuugit.

shirt/top this new a little bit

"这衣服新一点，This dress is just a little bit newer."

4. Except for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix "uu-". Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g.,[edit]

Uu-hleny neix man guu meuu.

The good one this is a maker of possession you

"这个好的是你的，This good one is yours."

Na qieng dheuu uu-daeus.

He/she want to take the long one

"他想拿长的，He wants to take the long one."

Kai uu-long hauux man guu dhes.

Chicken the big one that is a maker of possession me

"那只大的鸡是我的，That big chicken is mine."

5. Adjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic.When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g.,[edit]

veengs kaeu kaeu

shirt/top white white

"白白的衣服，white clothes"

dzuuns dzuuns buuen

quick quick come

"快快来，come quickly"

dais dais fei

slow slow walk

"慢慢走，walk slowly" (When the Hlai people are saying farewell (bye), "dais dais fei" is the phrase they say to each other.)

Two different adjectives can be doubled like AABB, e.g.,

Blongs dhes baen baen hleny hleny.

House my new new good good.

"我的房子又新又好，My house is new and good."

Zuu hom hwous neix peek peek long long.

One classifier mountain this high high big big

"这一座山又高又大，This mountain is tall and big."

Two different adjectives also can be positioned in an ABAB pattern, e.g.,

Guen neix peek tauus peek tauus.

Road this high short high short

"这条路高高低低，This road is rough/bumpy."

Na fei aus uty aus uty.

He/she walk swing swing swing swing

"他踉踉跄跄地走着，He is walking tipsy (unsteady like a drunk)."

Zuu dhaenx guen neix muety toei muety toei.

One classifier road this straight flat straight flat

"这一条路平平直直，This road is straight and smooth."

Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like "i" or "u"; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g.,

li- loek

prefix dark

"黑漆漆，pitch-dark"

ri- raeux

prefix sparse

"稀疏，sparse"

gu- goeks

prefix concave

"黑漆漆，full of bumps and holes/uneven"

ghu- ghaeu

prefix clear

"清澈，clear"

6. Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,[edit]

kaeu- laepplaepp

white something looks bright

"亮晶晶，something is so white as to be bright"

loek- tingting

black something looks dark

"黑漆漆，something is so black as to be dark"

tax fous-qiettqiett

rice hot something looks hot

"饭热乎乎，the hot rice"

7. The word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,[edit]

"enyx" + noun	noun + "enyx"
enyx hla, small fish "小鱼，small fish"	hla enyx, fish small "小的鱼，small fish"
enyx kai, small chicken "小鸡，chick"	kai enyx, chicken small "小的鸡，chick"
enyx dziengx, small finger "小指，small finger"	dziengx enyx, finger small "小的手指，small finger"

The word "long" is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g.,

"long" + noun	noun + "long"
long duis, big water buffalo "大的水牛，big buffalo"	duis long, water buffalo big "大水牛，big buffalo"
long hwoet, big wind "大的风，big wind."	hwoet long, wind big "大风，big wind"
long cai, big tree "大的树，big tree"	cai long, tree big "大树，big tree"

Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix "bais-" to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix "bais-" is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g.,

bais-fun, big rain "大雨，heavy rain"	bais-kuuengxcai, big tree "大树，big tree"
bais-qien, big stone "大石头，big stone"	bais-coem, big fruit "大果子，big fruit"
bais-duis, big water buffalo "母水牛，female buffalo"	bais-kai, big chicken "母鸡，hen"

Nouns that have the prefix "bais-" added on to them can be modified by the word "long" to increase the degree, e.g.,

bais-kuuengxcai long,

big tree big

"很大的树，large tree"

bais-qien long,

big stone big

"很大的石头，large stone"

If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word "dhat" or "dhatdhat" can be added.

Numbers[edit]

^[16][17]

Numbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase.

Cardinal numbers[edit]

Basic numbers units[edit]

• 【ceuus/zeuus/zuu，一】: one (in some case, the word "lax" also mean the digit—"one")
• 【hlaus，二】: two
• 【fus，三】: three
• 【caus，四】: four
• 【ba，五】: five
• 【dom，六】: six
• 【tou，七】: seven
• 【ghou，八】: eight
• 【fauus，九】: nine
• 【fuet，十】: ten
• 【ghwaen，百】: hundred
• 【nguen，千】: thousand
• 【vaens，万】: ten thousand

Basic numbers unit combinations[edit]

• 【fuet ceuus，十一】: eleven
• 【fuet hlaus，十二】: twelve
• 【hlaus fuet，二十】: twenty
• 【fus fuet ba，三十五】: thirty five
• 【lax ghwaen hlaus fuet，一百二十】: one hundred twenty
• 【caus nguen uengx ceuus，四千零一】: four thousand zero one (4,001)
• 【zuu vaens，一万】: ten thousand

C. Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,[edit]

However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers.

D. Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,[edit]

Sometimes, the words "nguen" and "vaens" combine with "jieng" or "zuu" to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g.,

E. There are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage.[edit]

First, when Hlai people count, they will say, "ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, caus…(1, 2, 3, 4…)", they won't use "zuu" or "lax" for one.

The word "zuu" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun.

The digit 1, when it is either in the 100's, 1,000's, 10,000's, 100,000's.... place of a number, the word "zuu" should be used for 1, e.g.,

The digit 1, when it is either in the 10's or 1's place of a number, the word "ceuus/zeuus" should be used for 1, e.g.,

However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word "zuu" should be used, e.g.,

The word "lax" cannot be used with a classifier. The word "lax" only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000...etc., the word "zuu" should be used, instead of "lax". e.g.,

F. There are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage.[edit]

First, "fuet" is used for the number ten when counting.

"Bun" does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word "bun" does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are "hom" and "lang"; but when "lang" is used with people, "bun" cannot be used.

"Fuet" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g.,

However, "fuet" can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g.,

Zero[edit]

In Hlai language, there is no word for the number "zero"; some areas adopted the loan word "lengs" (零，zero), e.g.,

However, the number "zero" can be represented by the conjunction "uengx" or "loms", e.g.,

H. In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers[edit]

(1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g.,

(2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g.,

Ordinal numbers[edit]

A. In Hlai language, the word "ghwous" (头，head) or "ceuus" (一，one) means "first", and the word "cuty" (尾，tail) means "last"; for all numbers in between first and last, the word "tom" (中间，middle) is used.

hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

child head to plant

"老大（长子），the first born child (usually, it means "son")"

hluuek-tom

child middle

"老二，老三…，the child(ren) in the middle"

hluuek-cuty

child tail

"老幺，the youngest child"

When one's gender is needed, the word "pasmaen" (男人，man) or "baiskaux" (女人，woman) can be added, e.g.,

hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

child man head to plant = child head to plant

"长子，the first born son"

hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-baiskaux-long

child woman head to plant = child woman big

"大女儿，the first born daughter"

Usually "ghwous" indicates the oldest male; "long" the oldest female, like "kauuslong" (大姐, oldest sister), "zoulong" (大嫂，wife of oldest brother).

Moreover, the prefix "pas-" (男性，man) or "bais-" (女性，woman) can be added to the words "tom" and "cuty", to indicate gender, e.g.,

pas- tom

male prefix middle

"次子，the son in the middle"

bais- cuty

female prefix tail

"幺女，the youngest daughter"

When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by "ghwous" + "zuu" + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g.,

ghwous zuu kuuengx

head one classifier for tree

"头一棵，the first (tree)"

To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baiscuty" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,

baiscuty zuu hom

last/tail one classifier

"最后一个，the last (one)"

To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baistom" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,

baistom zuu lang

middle one classifier

"第二，或第三…，the 2nd, or 3rd…"

Counting with ordinal numbers[edit]

Usually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,

• 【dhoeis-iet，第一】: first
• 【dhoeis-dzis，第二】: second
• 【dhoeis-das，第三】: third
• 【dhoeis-dis，第四】: fourth
• 【dhoeis-ngau，第五】: fifth
• 【dhoeis-laekk，第六】: sixth
• 【dhoeis-qiet，第七】: seventh
• 【dhoeis-bhoeix，第八】: eighth
• 【dhoeis-gaeus，第九】: ninth
• 【dhoeis-dapp，第十】: tenth

dhoeis-iet dus

first group

"第一组，the first group"

dhoeis-bhoeix dhuix

eighth team

"第八队，the eighth team"

dhoeis-dzis bhaenx

second class

"第二班，the second class"

C. For counting the passage of years, months, days, or time[edit]

In Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,

• year
  • 【boux-diu，鼠年】: the year of the mouse
  • 【boux-duis，牛年】: the year of the buffalo
  • 【boux-cauus，鱼年】: the year of the fish
  • 【boux-bous，兔年】: the year of the rabbit
  • 【boux-dang，龙年】: the year of the dragon
  • 【boux-zan，虫年】: the year of the insect
  • 【boux-ngas，马年】: the year of the horse
  • 【boux-mat，人年】: the year of the man
  • 【boux-nok，猴年】: the year of the monkey
  • 【boux-kai，鸡年】: the year of the chicken
  • 【boux-tety/hwanba，狗年】: the year of the dog
  • 【boux-bou，猪年】: the year of the pig
• day
  • 【hwan-diu，鼠日】: the day of the mouse
  • 【hwan-duis，牛日】: the day of the buffalo
  • 【hwan-cauus，鱼日】: the day of the fish
  • 【hwan-bous，兔日】: the day of the rabbit
  • 【hwan-dang，龙日】: the day of the dragon
  • 【hwan-zan，虫日】: the day of the insect
  • 【hwan-ngas，马日】: the day of the horse
  • 【hwan-mat，人日】: the day of the man
  • 【hwan-nok，猴日】: the day of the monkey
  • 【hwan-kai，鸡日】: the day of the chicken
  • 【hwan-tety/hwanba，狗日】: the day of the dog
  • 【hwan-bou，猪日】: the day of the pig

For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han's solar calendar, e.g.,

1. 【zuu-nyaen-baen，一月、正月】: January
2. 【hlaus-nyaen，二月】: February
3. 【fus-nyaen，三月】: March
4. 【caus-nyaen，四月】: April
5. 【ba-nyaen，五月】: May
6. 【dom-nyaen，六月】: June
7. 【tou-nyaen，七月】: July
8. 【ghou-nyaen，八月】: August
9. 【fauus-nyaen，九月】: September
10. 【fuet-nyaen，十月】: October
11. 【fuetceuus-nyaen，十一月】: November
12. 【fuethlaus-nyaen，十二月、腊月】: December

The other is following the Han's lunar calendar, e.g.,

• 【zuu-hwan-nyaen，初一】: the first day of a lunar month
• 【hlaus-hwan-nyaen，初二】: the second day of a lunar month
• 【fus-hwan-nyaen，初三】: the third day of a lunar month
• 【caus-hwan-nyaen，初四】: the fourth day of a lunar month
• ..........
• 【fuetceuus-hwan，十一日】: the 11th day of a lunar month
• 【fuetceuus-hwan，十二日】: the 12th day of a lunar month
• ..........
• 【hlausfuetceuus-hwan，二十一日】: the 21st day of a lunar month
• 【fusfuet-hwan，三十日】: the 30th day of a lunar month

Number of Approximation[edit]

A. In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,[edit]

hlaus fus (hom)

two three (classifier)

"两三（个），two or three"

ba dom (hom)

five six. (classifier)

"五六（个），five or six"

hlaus fus caus (hom)

two three four (classifier)

"二三四（个），two, three, or four"

tou ghou fauus (hom)

seven eight nine (classifier)

"七八九（个），seven, eight, or nine"

Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together.

B. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大概，probably), e.g.,[edit]

dzaengsloepp zaux fuet dom hom

probably have ten six classifier

"大概有十六个，probably have sixteen (ones)"

dzaengsloepp zaux hlaus fuet boux he

probably have two ten year accent

"大概有二十岁，about twenty years old"

The word "dzaengsloepp" also can be shortened to "loepp",e.g.,

loepp zaux tou fuet ceuus kuuengx

probably have seven ten one classifier for tree

"大约有七十一棵，probably have seventy-one (trees)"

C. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (余，a surplus/more than), e.g.,[edit]

hlaus dza hom

two surplus classifier

"两个多，more than two (less than three)"

fuet dza boux

ten surplus year

"十多年，more than ten years (less than twenty)"

The word "dza" can also be used with "loepp" to represent approximate numbers. The construction is "loepp" + zaux + number + "dza", e.g.,

Na loepp zaux fuet dza boux da buuen he.

he probably have ten surplus year not come accent

"他大约有十余年没来了，He hasn't come (to this place) for more than ten years."

The word "zaux" in this construction can be omitted, e.g.,

Zuu hom as neix loepp fuet dza gins.

one classifier watermelon this probably ten surplus classifier, about 500g

"这个西瓜大约有十多斤，This watermelon is a little more than 10 gins."

D. There are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,[edit]

Na naus lax zuugit vi!

he just/only eat a little bit accent

"他才吃一点点，He only ate a little bit.)"

Hou zaux zuugitgit.

I have a little bit

"我有一点点，I have a little bit.)"

bhinx zuugitlaei

lack a little bit

"缺了一点点，lacks a little bit."

The word "zuutom" (一部分，a part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g.,

zuutom hei zuutom buuen

some go some come

"一部分（人）去，一部分（人）来，Some (people) go, some (people) come."

paem na dhuus zuutom guen

meet he in part way

"在半路上碰见他，meet him part way"

Sometimes, the word "zuutom" means "half",e.g.,

zuu pas zuutom

one classifier for man half

"一人一半，each one (gets) half"

Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is "gei" (几, 若干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g.,

gei hwan neix

several day this

"这几天，these days"

Mansnyoengx zaux gei zuen aeu buuen.

only have several classifier man come

"只有几个人来，Only a few people come (less than ten)"

E. The word "hloei" (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g.,[edit]

Bhous na hauux hloei duis dhat.

village he that many water buffalo very

"他那个村牛很多，There are a lot of buffalo in his village."

Dhuix fa neix zaux uxaeu hloeihloei.

team we this have man so many

"我们这个队有许多人，We have so many people on this team."

When a certain amount is requested, the word "hloeiras" (多少，how many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g.,

Meuu boux neix hloeiras boux?

you year this how many year

"你今年多大岁数？How old are you this year?"

Meuu zaux hloeiras zuen hluuekghueng?

you have how many classifier younger sister or brother

"你有多少个弟弟妹妹？How many younger brothers and sisters do you have?"

Classifiers[edit]

^[18][19][20]

1. Classifiers that modify nouns[edit]

A. Common classifiers[edit]

• 【hom，个、块、所、颗、粒、朵、元、座、盏、顶...】: most frequently used, and used with inanimate objects (including fruit, month, story, building, flower, money, mountain, light-stand, hat...), e.g.,

zuu hom waeu

one classifier bowl

"一个碗, a bowl."

• 【zuen，位】: it is only used with humans, e.g.,

hlaus zuen bhiengs

two classifier soldier

"两个士兵, two soldiers"

• 【laus，个、位】: it is only used with males whether a baby, child, boy or young man, e.g.,

zuu laus hluuek

one classifier child

"一个男孩, a boy"

• 【hauus，个、位】: it is only used with females whether a baby, child, girl or young woman, e.g.,

hlaus hauus hluuek

two classifier child

"两个女孩, two girls"

• 【lang，只】: it can be used with humans, animate objects and spiritual beings, e.g.,

fus lang kai

three classifier chicken

"三只鸡, three chickens"

• 【kuuengx，棵】: it is used with larger plants (flowers use "hom"), e.g.,

caus kuuengx cai

four classifier tree

"四棵树, four trees"

• 【fans，件】: it is used with shirts or blouses, e.g.,

ba fans veengs

five classifier shirt/top

"五件衣裳, five shirts or blouses"

• 【hyax，条、件】: it is used with trousers/pants, e.g.,

hlaus hyax kous

two classifier pants

"两条裤子, two pairs of pants"

• 【ruet，条】: it is used with skirts, e.g.,

zuu ruet riens

one classifier the traditional Hlai skirt

"一条筒裙, a skirt"

• 【tos，套】: it is used with a suit of clothes or an outfit, e.g.,

zuu tos veengs kous

one classifier shirt/top pants

"一套衣服裤子, a suit or outfit having a matching top and bottom"

• 【tut，套】: it is used with a suit or outfit of clothes, e.g.,

zuu tut veengs

one classifier shirt/top

"一套衣服, a suit of clothes"

• 【dhanx，条、根】: it is used with linear objects, e.g.,

zuu dhanx dhoei

one classifier rope

"一根绳子, a rope"

dom dhanx noms

six classifier river

"六条河, six rivers"

• 【viens，块，张】: it is used with massive or planar objects, e.g.,

tou viens noeng duis

seven classifier skin water buffalo

"七张牛皮, seven pieces of cow hides"

• 【rueis，块、张】: it is usually used with flat surfaced planar objects, e.g.,

hlaus rueis aek bou

two classifier meat pig

"两块猪肉, two slabs of pork"

fus rueis noeng loei

three classifier skin muntjak

"三张麂子皮, three pieces of chamois (small antelope) hide"

• 【ban，头、只】: it is used with cows or horses, e.g.,

hlaus ban gas

two classifier horse

"两匹马, two horses"

• 【pous/paus，堆】: it is used with a relative smaller pile (pous/paus is also a verb), e.g.,

zuu pous van

one classifier earth

"一堆土, a pile of earth"

zuu pous guns

one classifier firewood

"一堆柴, a pile of firewood"

• 【kun，堆】: it is used with a relative bigger pile, e.g.,，

zuu kun muens

one classifier rice in the husk

"一大堆稻谷, a large pile of rice"

• 【baep，把】: it is usually used with seedling (There is no wheat on the Island of Hainan/Hlai people's territory.), e.g.,

zuu baep fan

one classifier seedling

"一把秧, a handful of rice seedlings"

• 【hax，把】: it is usually used with rice, e.g.,，

zuu hax muens

one classifier rice

"一把稻子, one handful of rice"

• 【bhaeng，间】: it is usually used with a room or building, e.g.,

zuu bhaeng blongs

one classifier house

"一间屋子, a building/house"

zuu bhaeng qiafei

one classifier train

"一节火车厢, a box car"

• 【bhaengs，梭/颗、封】: it is usually used with letters (a written communication as one sent through the mail) a bullet or a firecracker, e.g.,

zuu bhaengs veji

one classifier bullet

"一梭/颗子弹, a bullet"

zuu bhaengs dienx

one classifier letter

"一封信, a letter"

• 【bhak，块】: it is usually used with flat objects, e.g.,

zuu bhak gias

one classifier glass

"一块玻璃, a piece of glass"

zuu bhak qias

one classifier paper

"一块硬纸片, a piece of cardboard"

• 【bheek，幅】: it is usually used with a picture or painting, e.g.,

zuu bheek ueix

one classifier picture/painting

"一幅画, a picture/painting"

• 【bhuek，把】: it is usually used with straw, e.g.,

zuu bhueks ngwiengs

one classifier straw

"一把稻草, a handful of straw"

• 【bhui，本】: it is usually used with books, e.g.,

hlaus bhui qias

two classifier book

"两本书, two books"

• 【cax，座】: it is usually used with mountains, e.g.,

zuu cax hwous

one classifier mountain

"一座山, a mountain"

• 【ceuus，枝、秆】: it is usually used with a pen or stick, e.g.,

zuu ceuus bhit

one classifier pen

"一支笔, a pen"

• 【cueng，枚】: it is usually used with a needle, e.g.,

zuu cueng guty

one classifier needle

"一枚针, a needle"

• 【dhien，畦or 幅】: it is usually used with farmland (rectangular plots of land in a field, separated by ridges, usually for growing vegetables), also used with cloth, e.g.,

zuu dhien van bheuudaeis

one classifier land/earth vegetables

"一畦菜地, a bed of vegetables"

zuu dhien dhop

one classifier cloth

"一幅布, a piece of cloth"

• 【dhun，户、家】: it is usually used with households, e.g.,

bhous fa zaux hlaus fuet dhun blongs.

Village our have two ten classifier households

"我们村子有二十户人家, There are twenty households in our village."

• 【gas，辆、架】: it is usually used with a car or a plane, e.g.,

zuu gas qia

one classifier car

"一辆车, a car"

zuu gas vabheny

one classifier airplane

"一架飞机, an airplane"

• 【ghoeix，行、排】: a row, a line, e.g.,

fus ghoeix cai

three classifier tree

"三行树, three rows of trees"

zuu ghoeix qias

one classifier word/letter

"一行字, one line of words"

• 【ha，缕】: it is usually used with light.

• 【hus，副】: it is usually used with playing cards, poker.

• 【hwoens，堆、块】: it is usually used with fields or objects that can be organized in a pile, e.g.,

zuu hwoens guns

one classifier firewood

"一堆柴火, a pile of firewood"

zuu hwoens dax

one classifier field

"一块水田, a field"

• 【hluut，层】: it means "layers" or "levels", e.g.,

fus hluut laeus

three classifier the floor in building

"三层楼, three floors"

Van neix zaux fus hluut na.

Land this have three classifier thickness

"这土有三层厚, This soil has three layers."

• 【ka，枝】: it is usually used with branches, e.g.,

zuu ka cai

one classifier tree

"一枝树枝, a branch"

• 【kok，棵】: it is usually used with mushrooms, e.g.,

zuu kok dhety

one classifier mushroom

"一棵菌子, a mushroom"

• 【koen，只】: it is usually used with one object in a pair, e.g.,

zuu kuen zuugoems

one classifier shoe

"一只鞋, a shoe"

zuu koen fiek

one classifier classifier

"半挑东西, a pole balanced on a shoulder by half a load being carried in the front and the other half being carried in the back (fiek: the action of carrying stuff on a shoulder becomes a classifier)."

• 【kou，张、顶】: it is usually used with mesh, e.g.,

zuu kou ghoeis hla

one classifier net fish

"一张鱼网, a fishing net"

• 【liemx，瓣】: it is usually used with a clove or segment of fruit, e.g.,

zuu liemx coembhem

one classifier grapefruit

"一瓣柚子, a piece of grapefruit"

• 【leep，叠】: it is usually used with thin objects like paper, e.g.,

hlaus leep qias

two classifier paper

"两层纸, two sheets of paper"

• 【leeps，瓣、片、层】: it is usually used with thin objects

• 【luuengs，把】: it is usually used with a saw (tool for sawing)

• 【moux，种、类】: it means a "kind, sort", e.g.,

neix zuu moux hleny

This one classifier good

"这一种好, This is a good one."

zaux hlenyhloei moux muens

have many classifier rice

"有好多种稻子, There are many kinds of rice."

• 【paeng，串】: it is usually used with fruit, e.g.,

zuu paeng zuuloengs

one classifier betel nut

"一串槟榔, a cluster of betel nut"

• 【pienx，把】: it is usually used with knives e.g.,

zuu pienx gas

one classifier knife

"一把刀, a knife"

• 【puens，杆、根】: it is usually used with tree trunks or any bar-like or rod-like objects, e.g.,

zuu puens cai

one classifier tree

"一根树干, a stump (or tree trunk)"

zuu puens bhit

one classifier pen

"一支笔, a pen"

• 【raeis，块、片】: it is used with fields, e.g.,

zuu raeis dax

one classifier field

"一片田, a field"

• 【ras，棵，株】: it is usually used with grass or rice, e.g.,

zuu ras gans

one classifier grass

"一棵草, a blade of grass"

• 【rok，块】: it is usually used with hillside fields (fields far from a water source), e.g.,

zuu rok ang

one classifier field

"一块刀耕地, a field"

(ang: specifically, a burned up plot of land that is fertilized for future farming by the remaining ashes; an ancient farming way of Hlai people, but now forbidden by the CN government)

fus rok pos

three classifier hillside field

"三块旱地, three fields on the hillside"

• 【ruets，摞】: it is usually used with massive objects

• 【taeu，批、群】: it is usually used with a batch of goods or a group of animals, e.g.,

caty zuu taeu liem

buy one classifier sickle

"买一批镰刀, buy a bundle of sickles"

zuu taeu dzeeng

one classifier goat/sheep

"一群羊, a flock of goats"

• 【tuueng，把】: it is usually used with farm tools, e.g.,

zuu tuueng rik

one classifier rake

"一把耙, a rake"

• 【vaen，梳、下】: it is usually used with comb-like, comb-shaped objects, e.g.,

zuu vaen hweek

one classifier banana

"一梳芭蕉, a bunch of bananas"

or it is used for counting the number of times of pestling, e.g.,

ceek fuet vaen

pestle ten classifier

"舂十下, pestle ten times"

• 【vans，张、页、幅、块】: it is usually used with paper products, e.g.,

zuu vans qia

one classifier paper

"一张纸, a piece of paper"

zuu vans diets

one classifier picture

"一幅照片, a photograph"

• 【voei，桶】: it is usually used with something that can be carried in a bucket, e.g.,

zuu voei ghei

one classifier rice

"一桶米, a bucket of rice"

• 【vong，嘟噜】: it is usually used with something formed as a cluster (tropical fruit is usually in clusters, such as coconuts, betel nuts), e.g.,

zuu vong coemcai

one classifier fruit

"一嘟噜果子, a cluster of fruit"

B. Classifiers for measurement[edit]

• 【mous，亩】: (Chinese acre) a unit of area to measure a land or field, about 667 square meters, e.g.,

zuu mous dax

one classifier field

"一亩田, one mu of field"

• 【dho，丈】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.

zuu dho dhop

one classifier cloth or textile

"一丈布, one zhang of cloth"

• 【qieux，尺】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.

hlaus qieux dhop

two classifier cloth or textile

"两尺布, two feet of cloth"

• 【cuns，寸】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.

fus cuns dhop

three classifier cloth or textile

"三寸布, three inches of cloth"

• 【hlaenx，庹】: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5–6 feet.

• 【hwuup，拃】: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15–20 centimeters, e.g.,

zuu hwuup daeus

one classifier length

"一拃长, one zuo length"

• 【tunx，节】: the length of a finger, about 6–9 centimeters.

• 【dhas，石】: a unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei, "十石米 (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.

• 【dhaeu，斗】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu dhaeu ghei，"一斗米 (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice)."10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.

• 【kax，升】: a unit of weight, e.g.,fus kax ghei, "三升米 (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.

• 【gins，斤】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu gins hla，"一斤鱼 (zuu: one, hla: fish)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.

• 【luuengx，两】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus，"一两盐 (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g

• 【dhun，吨】: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei，"九吨铁, a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron)."

C. Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs[edit]

• 【kop，捧 or 把】: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu kop ghei

one classifier rice

"一捧米, one scoop of rice"

• 【koens，捆】: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu koens hya

one classifier thatch or couch grass

"一捆茅草, a sheaf of thatch"

• 【bhiek，捆】: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,

zuu bhiek guns

one classifier firewood/sticks

"一捆柴, a bundle of firewood/sticks"

• 【zeems，撮】: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu zeems nyaeus

one classifier salt

"一撮盐, one pinch (using all five fingers) of salt."

• 【jims，撮】: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,

jims zuugit nyaeus

pick up a little of salt

"拈一点盐, a pinch (using only two fingers) of salt"

hlaus jims nyaeus

two classifier salt

"两撮盐, two pinches of salt"

• 【fiek，担or 双】: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,

zuu fiek guns

one classifier firewood

"一担柴a bundle of firewood"

zuu fiek zuugoems

one classifier shoe

"一双鞋, a pair of shoes"

• 【gok，杯、瓶】: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu gok noms

one classifier water

"一杯水, a cup of water"

zuu gok ghweis

one classifier oil

"一瓶油, a bottle of oil"

• 【waeu，碗】: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu waeu tax

one classifier cooked rice

"一碗饭, a bowl of rice"

• 【boux/baux，岁】: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fuet ghou boux

one ten eight classifier

"十八岁, 18 years old"

• 【bhaem，围】: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,

hlaus blaem cai

two classifier tree

"两围的树 tree size of two men's arms wrapped around it"

• 【comx，袋】: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,

zuu comx ghei

one classifier rice

"一袋米, a bag of rice"

• 【ding，升】: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu ding ghei

one classifier rice

"一升米, a barrel of rice"

• 【dhak，滴】: the original action is dripping; the meaning is "a drop", used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu dhak noms

one classifier water

"一滴水, a drop of water"

• 【dzuen，挂】: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu dzuen hweek

one classifier banana

"一大挂芭蕉, a stalk of bananas"

• 【fas，阵】: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fas fun

one classifier rain/shower

"一阵雨, a (rain) shower"

• 【fiens，把】: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fiens gwaek

one classifier hoe

"一把锄头, a hoe"

• 【fok，块】: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fok gom neix

one classifier region this

"这块地方, this region"

• 【gieps，夹】: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

hlaus gieps hya

two. classifier thatch

"两夹茅草, two sheaves of thatch"

• 【guengs，篮、框】: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu guengs ghei

one classifier hoe

"一筐米, a basket of rice"

• 【guety，串】: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu guety hla

one classifier fish

"一串鱼, a string of fish"

• 【neny，串】: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu neny hla

one classifier fish

"一串鱼, a string of fish"

• 【neny，枝】: as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,

zuu neny ceeng

one classifier flower

"一枝花, a flower"

• 【ghongs，丛】: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu ghongs hweek

one classifier banana

"一丛芭蕉树, a grove of banana trees"

• 【hoep，盒】: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu hoep cuax

one classifier matches

"一盒火柴, a box of matches"

• 【hwang，圈】: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu hwang zuu hwang noms

one classifier one classifier water

"一圈一圈的水, a ripple (of water)"

• 【hwaeng，垄】: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,

zuu hwaeng man

one classifier a general term for potato

"一垄甘薯, a ridge of sweet potatoes"

• 【hwoens，丘、床】: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,

zuu hwoen dax

one classifier field

"一丘田, a field";

zuu hyoen haeus

one classifier quilt

"一床被子, a quilt"

• 【op，抱】: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,

zuu op guns

one classifier firewood

"一抱柴火, an armful of firewood"

• 【puuen，代】: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means "generations," e.g.,

fa buuen neix bhaeis zaux fus puuen bhe

We come here already have three classifier accent

"我们来这儿已有三代了, We've been here for three generations."

• 【rei，枝】: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.

• 【ruek，窝、笼、盒】: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu ruek bou

one classifier pig/hug

"一窝猪, a litter of pigs"

zuu ruek kai

one classifier chicken

"一笼鸡, a cage of chickens"

zuu ruek aenx

one classifier cake

"一盒点心, a box of cakes"

Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,

zuu ruek dhou

one classifier urine

"一泡尿, a stream of urine"

• 【taen，场、趟】: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

bhaeis vuek zuu taen dings.

Already do one classifier demon

"已经祭了一趟鬼, (The priest) already sacrificed once to the demons."

• 【taeng，桶】: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu taeng noms

one classifier water

"一桶水, a bucket of water"

• 【tiep，夹】: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,

zuu tiep bheuucai

one classifier vegetable

"一夹菜, a chopstick-pinch of food"

• 【tuck，包】: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu tuek dza

one classifier cigarettes

"一包烟, a pack of cigarettes"

• 【veeng，户】: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,

zuu veeng

one classifier

"一户(人家), a household."

• 【zaemx，步】: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu ghwaen zaemx

one hundred classifier

"一百步, one hundred steps"

• 【zeeng，穗、粒】: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,

zuu zeeng muens

one classifier rice

"一穗稻子, a stalk of rice"

zuu zeeng nyaeus

one classifier salt

"一粒粗盐, a grain of coarse salt"

2. Classifiers for modifying verbs[edit]

• 【faei，下、次、回】: time, e.g.,

taeix zuu faei

hit/beat one classifier

"打一下, to hit/beat once"

• 【gaeis，回、次、遍】: time, e.g.,

na bhaeis rien hlaus gaeis

he/she already say/speak two classifier

"他已经说了两遍了, He already said (it) two times."

• 【guen，趟、遍】: time, e.g.,

hei zuu guen

go one classifier

"去一次, go (there) one time"

• 【caety，阵、遍】: it is usually used by women, it means "time", e.g.,

bhaeis fun zuu caety

Already rain one classifier

"下了一阵雨, It already showered."

kai bhaeis hyoen fus caety

Chicken already cock crow three classifier

"鸡已叫了三遍, The chicken has already crowed three times."

• 【pienx，遍】: time, e.g.,

tak zuu pienx

study one classifier

"读一遍, read one time"

• 【caeu，阵】: it is usually used by the elderly, it means "time", e.g.,

zuu caeu fun

one classifier rain

"一阵雨, a shower (describing rain)"

zuu caeu hwoet

one classifier wind

"一阵风, a gust of wind"

• 【caens，顿】: classifier for meal, e.g.,

zuu caens tax

one classifier rice

"一顿饭, a meal"

• 【kok，脚】: feet, e.g.,

teeks zuu kok

kick one classifier

"踢一脚, give (it) a kick"

• 【boms，口】: mouth, e.g.,

gaenys zuu boms

bite one classifier

"咬一口, to take a bite"

• 【feek，口or 句】: mouth, e.g.,

lax zuu feek tax

eat one classifier rice

"吃一口饭, to take a bite of food"

na zuu feek tun ruus da rien

he/she one classifier word even not say

"他一句话也不说, He did not even say a word."

• 【pui，阵、遍】: it means "time" and is used to count sleep, e.g.,

gaux zuu pui

sleep one classifier

"睡一觉, time spent in rest/sleep"

The basic rules for Classifiers in Hlai language^[21][20][edit]

1. Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g.,[edit]

Daty zuu kun zuu kun bheny.

bird one classifier one classifier fly

"鸟成群成群地飞，Birds fly in groups."

2. Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g.,[edit]

Zuu lang ba neix long dhat!

one classifier dog this big really/truly

"这只狗真大！This dog is really big!"

3. Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g.,[edit]

Raux fus gaeis =Fus gaeis raux

read aloud three classifier= three classifier read

"读三遍，read three times"

Taeix zuu guen = Zuu guen taeix

hit one classifier = one classifier hit

"打一次，to hit/punch one time"

4. In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g.,[edit]

Hou caty zuu hom, meuu ngan caty zuu hom.

I buy one classifier you also buy one classifier

"我买一个，你也买一个，I buy one, and you buy one."

Pronouns[edit]

^[22][23]

There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.

Personal pronouns[edit]

	singular	plural
1st person	hou, "我" (polite) dhes, "我" (casual)	fa, "我们" (exclusive) gha, "咱们" (inclusive)
2nd person	meuu, "你"	meuuda, "你们"
3rd person	na, "他/她/它"	kun, "他们" kunaeu, "他们"

The different usage of "hou" and "dhes"^[24]

1. The women prefer to use "hou" when women talk to women, or women to men. They prefer to use "hou" in order to express themselves as a humble woman and to show respect to their listeners.
2. When a senior member of the family (an elderly, parents, older brothers or sisters...etc.) is angry with a junior, he/she could choose to use "hou" or "dhes"; on the contrary, juniors are forbidden to use "dhes" when speaking with the seniors in conversation, or when they are angry at them.
3. Among blood relatives, when men speak to women, they use "hou"; when men speak to men, either "hou" or "dhes" can be used; when juniors speak to a senior, they usually use "hou".
4. Among in-laws, no matter whether men, women, seniors, or juniors, when they speak to each other, the word "hou" is preferable to express politeness.
5. Between hosts and guests, no matter the gender or age, the word "hou" must be used to express politeness and respect.
6. When someone asks a who question, "Asras…?" If it is answered with the first personal pronoun, "hou" is preferable over "dhes", e.g.,

1. 1. If someone answers with the word "dhes", it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members' conversations, e.g.,

1. When a man sings to a woman to express his love to her, he will definitely use "hou"; if he uses "dhes", she would think he is not sincere, e.g.,

1. When someone speaks rudely, he uses "dhes" instead of "hou".
2. In today's Hlai society, the difference between "hou" and "dhes" is not so strict. Generally, women mostly use "hou"; men usually use "dhes". The word "hou" expresses politeness and respect to the listener, and the word "dhes" is more casual.

P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.

	Singular 单数	Plural 复数
Reflexive pronouns 反身代名词	paszauus, "自己, self" (男性用, man/male use); zuenzauus, "自己, self" (女性用, woman/female use); veengzauus, "自己, self" (通用, general use) goemzauus, "自己, self" (委婉, polite use)
General pronouns 泛称代名词	uengxtoengs, "大家, everyone"; aeu, "人家, people"; himax, "某人, someone"; aeu uughwaix, "别人, others"

Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,

Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,

Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,

The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,

Demonstrative pronouns[edit]

• 【neix，这】: this; here; so; such
• 【hauux，那】: that; there; so; such
• 【max，那】: that; there

The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,

• 【dhongneix，这】: like this
• 【dhonghauux，那】: like that
• 【hineix，这】: such
• 【hihauux，那】: like that

Other demonstrative pronouns are:

• 【uughwaix，别的】: other
• 【ranx，每】: every

When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,

When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,

When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,

If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,

The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,

There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,

When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,

When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,

The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,

The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g.,

Interrogative pronouns[edit]

• 【ras，哪，如何】: Where? Which? How?
• 【uuras/asras，谁】: Who?
• 【dhongras，怎样】: How?
• 【qiras，何时】: When? What time?
• 【hloeiras，多少】: How much? How many?
• 【meshes，什么】: What?
• others

The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,

Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" isplaced before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,

The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g.,

The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g.,

When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,

When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,

The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,

The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,

The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g.,

Adverbs[edit]

^[25][26]

Negation[edit]

• 【da，不】: not
• 【yous，不要，别】: Do not
• others

These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,

When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g.,

When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g.,

Degree[edit]

• 【veau，最】: for expressing superlative degree
• 【duix，最】: for expressing superlative degree (this is a loan word)
• 【zangs，太】: too
• 【nguenxges，更加】: more, even more (this is a loan word)
• 【loeppvaix，恰恰，相当】: just right, just enough, exactly
• 【dhat，很】: very
• 【baisias，很，极，非常】: very much
• others

These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,

But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,

To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,

The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,

Scope, extent, or range[edit]

• 【ruus，都】: all
• 【ngan，也，都】: also, all
• 【nyoengx，仅，只】: only
• 【mans，仅，只】: only
• others

These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,

These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,

Timing[edit]

• 【bhaeis，已经】: already
• 【kuenx，先】: earlier, before, first, in advance
• 【naeus，刚】: just, a moment ago
• 【faets，正在】: in process
• 【dhom，还】: still, yet
• 【fan，就，便】: then (This word is usually used in a narrative when describing something.)
• 【goms，就】: then (This word is usually used in a quote.)
• others

These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g.,

Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,

However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,

Duplication or continuation[edit]

• 【loms，又，再，还】: also, again,
• 【uuloms，又，再，还】: also, again,
• 【toengs，互相】: each other
• others

These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g.,

The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,

Emphasis or transition[edit]

• 【oms，又，却】: but, a signal word for a transition
• 【naus，到底】: a signal word for emphasis
• 【cuuslax，原来】: so, a signal word for a transition
• others

These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,

A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,

Conjunctions[edit]

^[27][28]

Link nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or verb-object phrases[edit]

• 【uengx，和，与】: and
• 【ku，跟，同，和】: and, to, with
• 【nyuek，同，和】: and, with
• others

That link nouns:

That link pronouns:

That link noun phrases:

That link verb-object phrases:

These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,

These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:

	As a conjunction	As a preposition
Ku	我和他去 Hou I ku and na he hei. go Hou ku na hei. I and he go "I and he go."	我跟他说 Hou I rien say ku to na. him Hou rien ku na. I say to him "I said to him."
Uengx	你有纸和笔吗？ Meuu You zaux have bhit pen uengx and qias paper hyos? Q Meuu zaux bhit uengx qias hyos? You have pen and paper Q "Do you have pen and paper?"	你跟他说吗？ Meuu You rien say uengx to na him hyos? Q Meuu rien uengx na hyos? You say to him Q "Are you talking to him?"
Nyuek	父亲和孩子在家 Pasdza Father nyuek and hluuek child(ren) dhuus in blongs. house Pasdza nyuek hluuek dhuus blongs. Father and child(ren) in house "The father and the child(ren) are at home."	母亲和孩子睡 Baisdza Mother gaux lie down nyuek with hluuek. child(ren) Baisdza gaux nyuek hluuek. Mother {lie down} with child(ren) "The mother sleeps with her child(ren)."

The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,

Some adverbs, like "loms" (又，却，again) and "hloeis" (顺便，by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,

Link verbs, adjectives, and phrases[edit]

• 【cuus，或者，还是】: or
• 【cas，或者，还是】: or
• 【cuusnaus，还是】: or
• others

Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,

Link a single subordinate clause[edit]

• 【hans，因为】: because
• 【dosdzis，所以】: so
• 【laeis，如果】: if
• 【tom，但是】: but
• 【dagoms，不然】: otherwise
• others

The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g.,

Link two or more clauses[edit]

The first clause	The latter clause
Not only... 不但...	but also/even... 而且...
dacaux... danyoengx... dagoms...	uengx... koms... toep...

Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g.,

The first clause	The latter clause
Because... 因为...	so/therefore... 所以...
hans... ienxuis...(this is a loan word)	dosdzis...(this is a loan word)

Relationships between linked elements[edit]

Parallel relationship[edit]

The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (和, and), "ku" (和, and), and "nyuek" (和, and), e.g.,

Progressive relationship[edit]

The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (又, again), "hloeis"(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like "dacaux…koms…" (不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,

In the construction of phrases like "dacaux…koms…" ("not only…but also…"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.

Optional relationship[edit]

The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,

Transitional relationship[edit]

The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,

Conditional relationship[edit]

The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g.,

Causal relationship[edit]

The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,

Prepositions[edit]

^[29][30]

Place, direction, or time[edit]

A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.[edit]

• 【dhuus，在】: in, at, on
• 【tuuen，从】: from
• 【ueks，里】: inside

However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,

The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g.,

The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g.,

B. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.[edit]

• 【dhaens，到】: until
• 【zok，往，向】: toward, to
• 【dhuas，过】: through
• 【buu，在】: on, in
• 【beeng，沿】: along