Kon'e

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The Kon'e (袞衣) is a type of formal court robe traditionally worn by the Emperor of Japan. It corresponds to the Chinese imperial ceremonial robe gǔnfú (袞服, lit. 'imperial ceremonial robe'), which was worn by emperors in ancient China. In Japan, the Kon'e was worn together with the Benkan (冕冠; imperial crown) during important court rituals such as the Sokui no rei (即位の礼, Enthronement Ceremony) and the Chōga (朝賀; New Year's imperial audience).

In China, the robe was also known by the classical expression xuányī xūncháng (玄衣纁裳, lit. 'dark robe and red skirt'), referring to its black upper garment and light red skirt. In contrast, the Japanese Kon'e features red garments for both the upper and lower sections. A distinctive characteristic of the Japanese style is the way the mo (裳; ceremonial train) is worn over the hakama (袴; pleated trousers), forming a uniquely Japanese arrangement of lower-body garments.

The Kon'e remained in use until the enthronement of Emperor Kōmei in 1847. Beginning with Emperor Meiji, the official attire for enthronement ceremonies became the Kōrozen no gohō (黄櫨染御袍; robe dyed in yellow sappanwood).

The term Kon'e (袞衣) is an abbreviation of Konryō no Gyoi (袞龍御衣), which means a "dragon-embroidered ceremonial robe".^[1] Originating in China, the Kon'e was a ceremonial robe adorned with dragon motifs. The Book of Songs (Shijing) mentions such a robe in the "Bin feng" section, describing King Cheng of Zhou wearing it to greet the Duke of Zhou.^[2][3][a]

The Rites of Zhou (Zhouli), in the "Ministry of Spring" section, states: "When offering rites to former kings, [the emperor] wears the Kon'e and Benkan (冕冠)."^[4] A commentary adds that the character "Kon" specifically refers to garments embroidered with coiled dragons.^[5]

In Japan, the Kon'e became the emperor’s most formal court attire and was worn at ceremonies such as the enthronement ceremony and the Chōga (朝賀). The outfit consisted of a wide-sleeved outer robe (大袖, ōsode), an inner robe (小袖, kosode), and a ceremonial train called mo (裳). Both the ōsode and mo were embroidered with twelve symbolic motifs known as Jūnishō (十二章), including dragons. Until the enthronement of Emperor Kōmei, the Kon'e and Benkan were worn together in such rituals, and the complete ensemble was known as Konben (袞冕), Benpuku (冕服), or Konben Jūnishō (袞冕十二章).

The Chinese equivalent traditionally followed the xuányī xūncháng (玄衣纁裳, lit. 'dark robe and red skirt') standard—featuring a black upper garment and a red lower one. In contrast, the Japanese Kon'e was entirely red. One theory attributes this color scheme to early Sui dynasty practices described in the Book of Sui.^[6][7] However, the Japanese adoption of the Kon'e occurred during the Tang dynasty, whose legal clothing code retained the black-and-red configuration.^[8] Although Emperor Wen of Sui (Yang Jian) altered court dress for audiences to an all-red format, ceremonial robes such as the Kon'e remained unchanged.^[9]

Another theory links the red color to solar symbolism. The Japanese Benkan features a sun-shaped ornament not found in Chinese counterparts, possibly signifying the emperor’s status as “Son of the Sun.” From this perspective, the all-red color may have been chosen to represent the sun, aligning with Japan’s image as the “Land of the Rising Sun.”^[10]

According to the Shoku Nihongi, "On the first day of the first month in the fourth year of Tenpyō, the emperor received the New Year’s audience at the Daigokuden (大極殿, main audience hall of the imperial palace), wearing the Konben (Kon'e and Benkan) for the first time." Based on this record, it is considered that the emperor first wore the Kon'e and the Benkan in Tenpyō 4 (732). However, it is thought that this did not yet include the full Kon'e adorned with the Twelve Ornaments^[11].

The "Edicts on Attire" (衣服令) within the Yōrō Code contain regulations for the attire of the Crown Prince and other officials, but none concerning the emperor’s dress^[12]. For instance, the Crown Prince's formal dress is specified as "ōni no koromo" (黄丹衣), a reddish-yellow robe, but the formal color of the emperor’s attire remains unknown.

At the Shōsōin repository, there remains a case labeled "Surviving Portions of Ornaments for Imperial Ceremonial Attire and Crowns" (礼服御冠残欠), which is believed to contain fragments of the imperial ceremonial crowns worn by Emperor Shōmu (as Retired Emperor) and Empress Kōmyō (as Empress Dowager). Inside the case is a wooden tag indicating that these items were their formal ceremonial robes.^[13] The reverse of the tag is inscribed with the date "April 9, 752" (Tenpyō Shōhō 4), which corresponds to the date of the Eye-Opening Ceremony of the Great Buddha at Tōdaiji. It is therefore believed that these garments were worn on that occasion.

Although the garments themselves no longer survive, records of ceremonial airing (bakuryō, insect-proof airing) are preserved in the Shōsōin documents. The Bakuryōshi-ge (Report of the Airing Officials) from Enryaku 12 (793)^[14] and the Kanmotsushi-ge (Inventory Report by the Shōsōin Treasure Inspectors) from Kōnin 2 (811)^[15] describe Emperor Shōmu’s formal robe as a haku no awasehō (帛袷袍), that is, a lined white silk robe^[16][17].

White has long symbolized purity and freedom from defilement, and even today, the ceremonial robes worn by the Emperor of Japan during the Daijōsai and Niinamesai are pure white. It is therefore inferred that the ceremonial attire of emperors during the Nara period consisted of undecorated white garments, which were inherited in later forms such as the hakuginu (帛衣, white silk robe) and gosai-fuku (御祭服, imperial ritual attire).

According to the Shōsōin documents, the ceremonial ensemble of Emperor Shōmu consisted of the following items^[14][18]:

• robe (haku no awasehō, 帛袷袍)
• inner garments (ōshi, 襖子; one padded with cotton and one unpadded)
• undergarment (kansan, 汗衫)
• short pleated overskirt (hirami, 褶; made of gauze brocade)
• pair of trousers (hakama, 袴; padded with cotton)
• wrapping cloths (awase fukushi, 袷幞子; two sets each)

The hō (袍) refers to the outer robe, while the ōshi (襖子) are inner garments with linings. Jomen (絮綿) indicates cotton padding, and awase (袷) refers to unpadded lined garments. The kansan (汗衫) is an unlined undergarment. The hirami (褶) is a short, pleated wrap skirt, equivalent to the later mo (裳). The fukushi (幞子) are cloths used for wrapping^[19].

In the Tang dynasty, the emperor's gǔnfú (袞服) was composed of two distinct garments, following the traditional yi-shang (衣裳) system—yi (衣), the upper garment, and shang (裳), a skirt-like lower garment. In contrast, the Japanese imperial ceremonial attire consisted of three components: the upper robe, a pair of trousers (hakama), and a short pleated overskirt (hirami), reflecting a different development in the structure of court dress.

While Chinese court attire did not include skirt-like garments worn over trousers, Japanese formal dress—both for the emperor and civil officials—included hirami worn over hakama. The hirami, a short pleated overskirt, later came to be referred to as mo (裳) in the Heian period.

The use of hirami in Japanese court dress represents a continuous tradition dating back to the Asuka period, and was incorporated into the design of the Kon'e. Although inspired by Tang models, the Japanese formal costume developed its own distinctive structure for the lower body.

At the Shōsōin, a pair of shoes known as Nō-no-gorairi (衲御礼履), believed to have been worn by Emperor Shōmu at the Eye-Opening Ceremony of the Great Buddha, are preserved today.[1]

• Benkan
• Emperor of Japan
• Sokutai

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