Overseas territory (France)

territoires d'outre-mer français French overseas territories
Flag of France
France's global presence includes Overseas Territories worldwide and Antarctic claims, showcasing the nation's strategic influence and global reach. Red areas represent the French Republic; Circled regions denote overseas territories; Lower-right section shows Adélie Land, a French claim in Antarctica.
Administrative center	Paris
Official languages	French
Administrative divisions of France	Guadeloupe Martinique French Guiana Réunion Mayotte French Polynesia New Caledonia Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saint Martin Saint Barthélemy Wallis and Futuna French Southern and Antarctic Lands Clipperton Island
Government	Unitary state under the French Fifth Republic
Establishment	Colonial origins in the 17th–18th centuries; current status defined by Article 72-3 of the French Constitution
Area
• Total	1,193,960 km2 (460,990 sq mi)
Population
• 2024 estimate	2,800,000

French overseas territories (French: territoires d'outre-mer français) refer to areas under the sovereignty of the French Republic that are located outside the European mainland. These territories are situated across the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Antarctica. Although they cover a land area smaller than mainland France, they span over 1.2 million square kilometers, most of which consist of exclusive economic zones (EEZs) in maritime domains.^[1]

As of 2024, the total population of the French overseas territories is approximately 2.8 million people. The territories are legally categorized under Article 72-3 of the French Constitution into several groups: overseas departments and regions (départements et régions d'outre-mer, DROM), overseas collectivities (collectivités d'outre-mer, COM), and other territories with special statuses, such as New Caledonia and the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.^[2]

The five DROMs include Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Réunion, and Mayotte. COMs include French Polynesia, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Saint Martin, Saint Barthélemy, and Wallis and Futuna. Other entities, such as Clipperton Island and the French Southern and Antarctic Lands (TAAF), fall under special administrative arrangements.

These territories differ in their administrative structures, legislative autonomy, and legal relationship with the European Union. Some are classified as outermost regions (régions ultrapériphériques, RUP) under EU law and are fully subject to EU treaties, while others are considered overseas countries and territories (pays et territoires d'outre-mer, OCTs), where EU law does not automatically apply.^[3]

The origins of France's overseas territories trace back to the country's early colonial expansion during the 17th and 18th centuries, when France established colonies in the Caribbean (including Martinique and Guadeloupe), the Indian Ocean (notably Réunion), and South America (such as French Guiana).^[4] In the 19th century, French imperial reach extended further into Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific, incorporating territories such as New Caledonia and French Polynesia.^[5]

Significant political changes followed World War II. On 19 March 1946, France enacted Law No. 46-451, which converted Guadeloupe, Martinique, Réunion, and French Guiana into départements d'outre-mer (DROM), fully integrating them into the French administrative and legal system.^[6] Other territories were designated as territoires d'outre-mer (TOM) under the French Union, and their residents were granted French citizenship along with localized administrative structures.^[7]

During the wave of decolonization in the 1950s and 1960s, many French colonies gained independence. However, several regions, including Mayotte and New Caledonia, opted to retain their political ties with France. In referendums held in 1974 and 1976, 63% and then 99.4% of Mayotte's voters chose to remain a French territory, diverging from the path taken by the other islands of the Comoros archipelago.^[8]

New Caledonia gained increased autonomy through the Matignon Accords of 1988 and the Nouméa Accord of 1998. A series of independence referendums were held in 2018, 2020, and 2021, in which a majority of voters favored remaining part of the French Republic.^[9]

In 2013, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 67/265, which reinstated French Polynesia on the list of non-self-governing territories. The French government, however, stated that French Polynesia possessed broad autonomy under the current constitutional framework and did not recognize the resolution's legal validity.^[10]

The population of French overseas territories varies significantly across regions. According to 2024 data from the French National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE), Réunion is the most populous overseas department, with approximately 871,200 inhabitants.^[11] Other major territories include Guadeloupe (384,315),^[12] Martinique (360,749),^[13] French Guiana (286,618),^[14] French Polynesia(278,786),^[15] New Caledonia (271,400),^[16] and Mayotte(68,600).^[17] In contrast, the French Southern and Antarctic Lands (TAAF) are largely uninhabited, with only a small number of scientific researchers and military personnel stationed there.

The ethnic composition of the overseas territories reflects the historical legacies of colonization, the transatlantic slave trade, indentured labor migration, and more recent immigration.

New Caledonia is ethnically diverse, with Indigenous Kanaks accounting for about 40% of the population. Other communities include Europeans (locally known as Caldoches), as well as migrants of Wallisian, Tahitian, Indonesian, and Vietnamese descent.^[18]

Guadeloupe and Martinique are predominantly inhabited by descendants of enslaved Africans, with Afro-Caribbean cultural heritage playing a central role in social identity.^[19]

French Guiana is home to a mixture of Creoles, Maroons, Indigenous Amerindians, Chinese, Brazilians, and other immigrant populations.^[20]

Réunion has a notably multi-ethnic population, including Creoles, Indo-Reunionese (Malbars), Chinese, Malagasy, and people of European origin.^[21]

Mayotte is predominantly inhabited by Comorian Muslims who speak local languages such as Shimaore and Kibushi.^[21]

Although France adheres to a principle of secularism (laïcité), religious affiliation is more visible and active in the overseas territories compared to mainland France.

Roman Catholicism remains the predominant religion in most territories, including Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Polynesia, and New Caledonia.^[22]

Mayotte stands out as the only French territory with a Muslim majority. About 95% of its population adheres to Sunni Islam, and religious practices have a strong influence on local law, education, and daily life.^[21]

Réunion is known for its religious pluralism, with Catholicism, Hinduism, Islam, and Chinese folk religions such as Taoism and Ancestor worship coexisting.^[23]

French Guiana also shows high religious diversity, including Catholicism, Evangelical Protestantism, Animism, Hinduism, and African diasporic religions.^[24]

According to INSEE data from 2019–2020, 51% of mainland French residents reported no religious affiliation, whereas only 33% of residents born in overseas territories did so, suggesting comparatively higher levels of religious participation in these regions.^[25]

The legal and political status of French overseas territories is defined by the French Constitution, the legal framework of the European Union, and international law, particularly United Nations resolutions on Decolonization. Article 72-3 of the 1958 French Constitution classifies these territories into three main categories: overseas departments and regions (DROM), overseas collectivities (COM), and New Caledonia, which holds a sui generis status.^[26]

The five DROMs are Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Réunion, and Mayotte. These territories are fully integrated into the French Republic and are subject to the same constitutional, administrative, and legal systems as metropolitan France. Each has a regional council (conseil régional) and a departmental council (conseil départemental), and they are governed under the Code général des collectivités territoriales.^[27]

Under European Union law, DROMs are recognized as outermost regions (régions ultrapériphériques, RUP) and are fully subject to EU treaties. Article 349 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union allows for specific support mechanisms, including access to structural funds and exemptions from certain EU policies^[28].

The COMs include French Polynesia, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Saint Martin, Saint Barthélemy, and Wallis and Futuna. These entities possess varying degrees of legislative and administrative autonomy. For example, French Polynesia exercises broad powers under Organic Law No. 2004-192, and it has its own local assembly (Assemblée de la Polynésie française).^[29]

In the EU framework, most COMs are designated as overseas countries and territories (OCTs). EU law does not automatically apply in these areas, but they maintain special association agreements with the European Union through the Overseas Countries and Territories Association (OCTA), enabling participation in cooperation and development programs.^[30]

New Caledonia occupies a special constitutional position distinct from both DROM and COM. Under the Nouméa Accord of 1998, it enjoys a high degree of autonomy with its own legislative and executive institutions. The territory has extensive powers over taxation, health, education, environmental regulation, and land management.

Between 2018 and 2021, New Caledonia held three referendums on independence. A majority of voters opted to remain part of France, although the final vote in 2021 was boycotted by pro-independence groups. The French government has reiterated its support for continued political dialogue under the framework of the Nouméa Accord.^[31][32]

The international status of French overseas territories continues to attract attention from the United Nations and other international organizations. In 2013, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 67/265, re-inscribing French Polynesia on the list of non-self-governing territories. The French government disputed the legal effect of the resolution, emphasizing that the territory benefits from substantial autonomy under the current constitutional structure.^[33]

The UN Special Committee on Decolonization continues to monitor developments in several territories, including New Caledonia, and regularly issues reports. Various political organizations and pro-independence groups have called for increased international oversight and reaffirmation of the right to self-determination^[34].

The economies of French overseas territories are generally small in scale, structurally limited, and heavily reliant on financial transfers from the central government and external support. According to data from 2021, the average GDP per capita in the overseas departments was approximately 55.9% of the national average. Significant disparities exist: Mayotte recorded the lowest per capita GDP at just 22.66% of the national average, while Martinique reached 68.4%, the highest among the DROMs.^[35] There is considerable regional variation in economic structure, largely influenced by geographic location, resource availability, and historical development.^[36]

In Guadeloupe and Martinique, the economy primarily relies on services and agriculture. Tourism is a key pillar, while agriculture focuses on the cultivation of sugarcane and bananas, along with rum production. Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy are known for tourism and duty-free retail, with Saint Barthélemy specializing in luxury tourism^[37].

French Guiana's economy is distinct due to the presence of the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, which serves as the primary launch site for the European Space Agency. The aerospace sector and its associated services form the backbone of the local economy. The region also possesses rich deposits of Gold and Timber, though illegal gold mining remains a persistent environmental and security concern.^[37][38]

In Réunion, the economy is relatively more diversified. Traditional sectors such as sugar production are complemented by food processing and Tourism. Mayotte, in contrast, remains economically underdeveloped, with Subsistence agriculture and small-scale fishing dominating local livelihoods.^[37]

New Caledonia's economy is dominated by the mining and metallurgical industries, particularly the extraction and export of Nickel, which constitutes a major source of income. French Polynesia relies on Tourism and black pearl aquaculture, both of which have global market significance. Wallis and Futuna engage primarily in subsistence agriculture and fishing. Saint Pierre and Miquelon, located in the North Atlantic, traditionally depended on cod fishing and have more recently developed small-scale tourism.^[37]

Public sector employment plays a critical role across most overseas territories. Government agencies, local administrations, education and healthcare institutions, and military forces constitute major sources of employment and income. Fiscal transfers from the French state remain substantial: in 2023, they accounted for approximately 21% of GDP in Martinique, 25% in Guadeloupe, 30% in Réunion, and up to 37% in French Guiana.^[39]

Despite ongoing financial support, high unemployment remains a structural challenge. In 2021, the unemployment rate in Mayotte reached 35%, and joblessness across most territories consistently exceeds the national average. Youth outmigration to Metropolitan France is common, driven by limited employment prospects, contributing to Brain drain and a persistent shortage of skilled labor.^[35]

French overseas territories host an exceptionally high proportion of France's biodiversity, accounting for approximately 80% of the country's total biological diversity despite covering less than one-quarter of its land area.^[40] These territories span multiple climatic zones and biogeographic regions, supporting a wide array of endemic species and fragile ecosystems, many of which are not found in Metropolitan France.

French Guiana contains part of the Amazon rainforest and supports a wide range of tropical biodiversity. Its forests are home to species such as Jaguars, Sloths, and Arapaima (a large freshwater fish), along with a rich variety of Amphibians and Insects. The region plays a crucial role in the conservation of neotropical ecosystems.^[40]

New Caledonia is globally recognized for its high endemism, particularly in Flora and reptiles. Notable species include the Joan palm, the pigeon tree (Excoecaria oppositifolia), and the New Caledonian giant gecko (Rhacodactylus leachianus). Its vegetation structure is distinct from other South Pacific islands. The region also contains one of the world's largest coral reef systems, parts of which have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. French Polynesia similarly harbors diverse coral reef ecosystems and supports black pearl aquaculture within marine reserves.^[40]

The Scattered Islands (Îles Éparses), under the management of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands (TAAF), is an important breeding ground for turtle and seabird communities. These uninhabited islands serve as natural shelters from the interference of intensive human development.^[40]

Sub-Antarctic islands in southern France and Antarctic territory, including the Kerguelen Islands, Crozet Islands and Amsterdam Island, are one of the most primitive ecosystems under the jurisdiction of France. These areas provide key habitats for large animals such as Penguins, Seals and Albatrosses. Because of their isolation, these islands are regarded as important sites for global biodiversity monitoring.^[40]

However, biodiversity protection faces persistent challenges. Many species have become extinct in these territories, such as the pink pigeon in Réunion and the tail-cutting bat in Martinique. Many other species are currently listed as endangered or critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The main threats to biodiversity include habitat loss, invasive alien species, and Climate change. Therefore, France ranks among the top in the number of endangered species in the world because of its overseas territory.^[40]